Human meniscus cells express hypoxia inducible factor-1α and increased SOX9 in response to low oxygen tension in cell aggregate culture

In previous work we demonstrated that the matrix-forming phenotype of cultured human cells from whole meniscus was enhanced by hypoxia (5% oxygen). Because the meniscus contains an inner region that is devoid of vasculature and an outer vascular region, here we investigate, by gene expression analysis, the separate responses of cells isolated from the inner and outer meniscus to lowered oxygen, and compared it with the response of articular chondrocytes. In aggregate culture of outer meniscus cells, hypoxia (5% oxygen) increased the expression of type II collagen and SOX9 (Sry-related HMG box-9), and decreased the expression of type I collagen. In contrast, with inner meniscus cells, there was no increase in SOX9, but type II collagen and type I collagen increased. The articular chondrocytes exhibited little response to 5% oxygen in aggregate culture, with no significant differences in the expression of these matrix genes and SOX9. In both aggregate cultures of outer and inner meniscus cells, but not in chondrocytes, there was increased expression of collagen prolyl 4-hydroxylase (P4H)α(I) in response to 5% oxygen, and this hypoxia-induced expression of P4Hα(I) was blocked in monolayer cultures of meniscus cells by the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α inhibitor (YC-1). In fresh tissue from the outer and inner meniscus, the levels of expression of the HIF-1α gene and downstream target genes (namely, those encoding P4Hα(I) and HIF prolyl 4-hydroxylase) were significantly higher in the inner meniscus than in the outer meniscus. Thus, this study revealed that inner meniscus cells were less responsive to 5% oxygen tension than were outer meniscus cells, and they were both more sensitive than articular chondrocytes from a similar joint. These results suggest that the vasculature and greater oxygen tension in the outer meniscus may help to suppress cartilage-like matrix formation.     

Synoviocyte Derived-Extracellular Matrix Enhances Human Articular Chondrocyte Proliferation and Maintains Re-Differentiation Capacity at Both Low and Atmospheric Oxygen Tensions

BackgroundCurrent tissue engineering methods are insufficient for total joint resurfacing, and chondrocytes undergo de-differentiation when expanded on tissue culture plastic. De-differentiated chondrocytes show poor re-differentiation in culture, giving reduced glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen matrix accumulation. To address this, porcine synoviocyte-derived extracellular matrix and low (5%) oxygen tension were assessed for their ability to enhance human articular chondrocyte expansion and maintain re-differentiation potential.MethodsPorcine synoviocyte matrices were devitalized using 3 non-detergent methods. These devitalized synoviocyte matrices were compared against tissue culture plastic for their ability to support human chondrocyte expansion. Expansion was further compared at both low (5%), and atmospheric (20%) oxygen tension on all surfaces. Expanded cells then underwent chondrogenic re-differentiation in aggregate culture at both low and atmospheric oxygen tension. Aggregates were assessed for their GAG and collagen content both biochemically and histologically.ResultsHuman chondrocytes expanded twice as fast on devitalized synoviocyte matrix vs. tissue culture plastic, and cells retained their re-differentiation capacity for twice the number of population doublings. There was no significant difference in growth rate between low and atmospheric oxygen tension. There was significantly less collagen type I, collagen type II, aggrecan and more MMP13 expression in cells expanded on synoviocyte matrix vs. tissue culture plastic. There were also significant effects due to oxygen tension on gene expression, wherein there was greater collagen type I, collagen type II, SOX9 and less MMP13 expression on tissue culture plastic compared to synoviocyte matrix. There was a significant increase in GAG, but not collagen, accumulation in chondrocyte aggregates re-differentiated at low oxygen tension over that achieved in atmospheric oxygen conditions.ConclusionsSynoviocyte-derived matrix supports enhanced expansion of human chondrocytes such that the chondrocytes are maintained in a state from which they can re-differentiate into a cartilage phenotype after significantly more population doublings. Also, low oxygen tension supports GAG, but not collagen, accumulation. These findings are a step towards the production of a more functional, tissue engineered cartilage.     

Correlation of the steady-state RNA levels among the alpha-subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase and the alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains of type I collagen during growth of chicken embryo tendon fibroblasts.

The relative steady-state levels of RNAs encoding type I collagen and prolyl 4-hydroxylase were examined in exponentially growing primary cultures of chicken embryo tendon fibroblasts. The RNA levels of the alpha 1 and alpha 2 chains of type I collagen were maximal when the fibroblasts reached the confluent state. The RNA levels of the alpha-subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase were also maximal at confluency and rose and fell with the RNA levels of the two collagen chains. The RNA levels of the beta-subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase did not correlate with the changes observed for the alpha-subunit or for either chain of type I collagen. The RNA levels of the beta-subunit were slightly higher than the RNA levels of the alpha-subunit. These results support our hypothesis that the synthesis of the alpha-subunit and thus the association of newly synthesized alpha-subunits with pre-existing beta-subunits is the rate-limiting factor in determining prolyl 4-hydroxylase activity in cultured cells.     

Biomechanics of meniscus cells: regional variation and comparison to articular chondrocytes and ligament cells

Central to understanding mechanotransduction in the knee meniscus is the characterization of meniscus cell mechanics. In addition to biochemical and geometric differences, the inner and outer regions of the meniscus contain cells that are distinct in morphology and phenotype. This study investigated the regional variation in meniscus cell mechanics in comparison with articular chondrocytes and ligament cells. It was found that the meniscus contains two biomechanically distinct cell populations, with outer meniscus cells being stiffer (1.59 ± 0.19 kPa) than inner meniscus cells (1.07 ± 0.14 kPa). Additionally, it was found that both outer and inner meniscus cell stiffnesses were similar to ligament cells (1.32 ± 0.20 kPa), and articular chondrocytes showed the highest stiffness overall (2.51 ± 0.20 kPa). Comparison of compressibility characteristics of the cells showed similarities between articular chondrocytes and inner meniscus cells, as well as between outer meniscus cells and ligament cells. These results show that cellular biomechanics vary regionally in the knee meniscus and that meniscus cells are biomechanically similar to ligament cells. The mechanical properties of musculoskeletal cells determined in this study may be useful for the development of mathematical models or the design of experiments studying mechanotransduction in a variety of soft tissues.     

Specific inactivation of prolyl 4-hydroxylase and inhibition of collagen synthesis by oxaproline-containing peptides in cultured human skin fibroblasts

The crucial role of collagen in fibrotic disorders has prompted attempts to develop drugs that inhibit collagen accumulation. Peptides containing the unphysiological amino acid 5-oxaproline (Opr) have recently been found to act as specific syncatalytic inactivators of pure prolyl 4-hydroxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of 4-hydroxyproline in collagens. The present study indicates that oxaproline-containing peptides benzyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Opr-Gly-benzyl ester (I) and benzyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Opr-Gly-ethyl ester (II) inactivate prolyl 4-hydroxylase in cultured human skin fibroblasts, peptide I being about twice as potent as peptide II. Inactivation by 50% was observed after culturing with about 20-40 microM concentrations of peptide I for 48 h. The inactivation appears to be specific, as no changes were found in the activities of two other intracellular enzymes of collagen synthesis, lysyl hydroxylase and galactosylhydroxylysyl glucosyltransferase. Synthesis of 4-hydroxyproline by the cells was markedly decreased, and 4-hydroxyproline-deficient procollagen accumulated intracellularly, whereas no changes were found in the incorporation of [14C]leucine into protein after culturing of the cells with a 30 microM concentration of peptide I for 48 h. No changes were seen in the viability of the cells or the release of lactate dehydrogenase from them into the culture medium. No significant changes were found in the steady-state levels of the mRNAs for the pro-alpha 1 chains of type I and type III procollagens or for the alpha and beta subunits of prolyl 4-hyroxylase or fibronectin after culturing with 75 microM peptide I for 48 h. The data indicate that inactivation of cellular prolyl 4-hydroxylase has marked effects on cellular 4-hydroxyproline formation and collagen secretion but no effects on the steady-state levels of mRNAs for type I and III procollagens or the two types of subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase.     

The matrix-forming phenotype of cultured human meniscus cells is enhanced after culture with fibroblast growth factor 2 and is further stimulated by hypoxia

Human meniscus cells have a predominantly fibrogenic pattern of gene expression, but like chondrocytes they proliferate in monolayer culture and lose the expression of type II collagen. We have investigated the potential of human meniscus cells, which were expanded with or without fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), to produce matrix in three-dimensional cell aggregate cultures with a chondrogenic medium at low (5%) and normal (20%) oxygen tension. The presence of FGF2 during the expansion of meniscus cells enhanced the re-expression of type II collagen 200-fold in subsequent three-dimensional cell aggregate cultures. This was increased further (400-fold) by culture in 5% oxygen. Cell aggregates of FGF2-expanded meniscus cells accumulated more proteoglycan (total glycosaminoglycan) over 14 days and deposited a collagen II-rich matrix. The gene expression of matrix-associated proteoglycans (biglycan and fibromodulin) was also increased by FGF2 and hypoxia. Meniscus cells after expansion in monolayer can therefore respond to chondrogenic signals, and this is enhanced by FGF2 during expansion and low oxygen tension during aggregate cultures.     

Assembly of homotrimeric type XXI minicollagen by coexpression of prolyl 4-hydroxylase in stably transfected Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells

We established stably transfected insect cell lines containing cDNAs encoding the alpha and beta subunits of human prolyl 4-hydroxylase in both Trichoplusia ni and Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells. The expression level and enzymatic activity of recombinant prolyl 4-hydroxylase produced in the Drosophila expression system were significantly higher than those produced in the T. ni system. We further characterized the involvement of prolyl 4-hydroxylase in the assembly of the three alpha chains to form trimeric type XXI minicollagen, which comprises the intact C-terminal non-collagenous (NC1) and collagenous domain (COL1), in the Drosophila system. When minicollagen XXI was stably expressed in Drosophila S2 cells alone, negligible amounts of interchain disulfide-bonded trimers were detected in the culture media. However, minicollagen XXI was secreted as disulfide-bonded homotrimers by coexpression with prolyl 4-hydroxylase in the stably transfected Drosophila S2 cells. Minicollagen XXI coexpressed with prolyl 4-hydroxylase contained sufficient amounts of hydroxyproline to form thermal stable pepsin-resistant triple helices consisting of both interchain and non-interchain disulfide-bonded trimers. These results demonstrate that a sufficient amount of active prolyl 4-hydroxylase is required for the assembly of type XXI collagen triple helices in Drosophila cells and the trimeric assembly is governed by the C-terminal collagenous domain.     

Lack of collagen type specificity for lysyl hydroxylase isoforms

Lysyl hydroxylase is the enzyme catalyzing the formation of hydroxylysyl residues in collagens. Large differences in the extent of hydroxylysyl residues are found among collagen types. Three lysyl hydroxylase isoenzymes (LH1, LH2, LH3) have recently been characterized from human and mouse tissues. Nothing is known about the distribution of these isoforms within cells or whether they exhibit collagen type specificity. We measured mRNA levels of the three isoforms, as well as the mRNAs of the main collagen types I, III, IV, and V and the alpha subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase, another enzyme involved in collagen biosynthesis, in different human cell lines. Large variations were found in mRNA expression of LH1 and LH2 but not LH3. Immunoblotting was utilized to confirm the results of Northern hybridization. The levels of mRNA of LH1, LH2, and the alpha subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase showed significant correlations with each other. The LH3 mRNA levels did not correlate with those of LH1, LH2, or the alpa subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase, clearly indicating a difference in the regulation of LH3. No correlation was observed between LH isoforms and individual collagen types, indicating a lack of collagen type specificity for lysyl hydroxylase isoforms. Our observations suggest that LH1, LH2, and the alpha subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylase are coregulated together with total collagen synthesis but not with the specific collagen types and indicate that LH3 behaves differently from LH1 and LH2, implying a difference in their substrates. These observations set the basis for further studies to define the functions of lysyl hydroxylase isoforms.     

Combination of reduced oxygen tension and intermittent hydrostatic pressure: a useful tool in articular cartilage tissue engineering.

Cartilage cells are normally studied under atmospheric pressure conditions and without loading. However, since cartilage exists in a condition of reduced oxygen and intermittent hydrostatic pressure we hypothesized lower partial oxygen pressures (PO2) and different intermittent hydrostatic pressures (IHP) would increase articular chondrocyte proliferation and matrix production and to stabilize chondrocyte phenotype in vitro. Monolayers of adult bovine articular chondrocytes were cultured under 5% or 21% PO2 in combination with IHP (0.2 MPa amplitude, frequencies 5/5s = 0.1 Hz, 30/2 or 2/30 min on/off loading). We measured proliferation (3H-thymidine incorporation) and collagen secretion (protein-binding assay, collagen type II-ELISA and immunocytochemical staining of pericellular collagen types I, II and IX). Reduced PO2 stimulated proliferation and collagen type II and IX secretion of chondrocytes in comparison to 21% PO2. Additionally, collagen type I expression was delayed by low PO2, indicating a stabilization of the cell phenotype. IHP 5/5s and 30/2 min inhibited proliferation but increased collagen secretion (pericellular collagen type IX was decreased). IHP 30/2 min delayed first expression of collagen type I. In contrast, IHP 2/30 min increased proliferation, but lowered collagen expression. All stimulating or inhibiting effects of PO2 and IHP were additive and vice versa. Reduced PO2 and different settings of IHP increased proliferation, collagen secretion, and phenotype stability of chondrocytes. The oxygen- and IHP-induced effects were additive, suggesting that a combination of these parameters might be a useful tool in cartilage tissue engineering.     

Increases in mRNA concentrations of the alpha and beta subunits of prolyl 4-hydroxylase accompany increased gene expression of type IV collagen during differentiation of mouse F9 cells.

Mouse F9 teratocarcinoma stem cells differentiate in monolayer cultures in the presence of retinoic acid, dibutyryl cAMP, and isobutyl methylxanthine. This differentiation is associated with a marked increase in the synthesis rates and mRNA concentrations of basement membrane proteins such as type IV collagen. We report here that the differentiation also involves an increase of up to 50-fold in the concentrations of the mRNAs for the alpha and beta subunits of prolyl 4-hydroxylase, the enzyme required for the cotranslational and post-translational hydroxylation of proline residues in collagens. The time courses and magnitudes of increases in these two mRNA concentrations were similar to those observed in the same experiments for the mRNA of the alpha chain of type IV collagen. In the differentiated F9 cells the concentration of the alpha subunit mRNA was about 30% of the beta subunit mRNA concentration. Northern blot analyses indicated that the sizes of the alpha and beta subunit mRNAs in the differentiated mouse F9 cells are similar to those in human skin fibroblasts. The F9 cell differentiation system appears to provide a useful model for studies on the regulation of prolyl 4-hydroxylase synthesis.     

Accumulation of properly folded human type III procollagen molecules in specific intracellular membranous compartments in the yeast Pichia pastoris.

It was recently reported that co-expression of the proalpha1(III) chain of human type III procollagen with the subunits of human prolyl 4-hydroxylase in Pichia pastoris produces fully hydroxylated and properly folded recombinant type III procollagen molecules (Vuorela, A., Myllyharju, J., Nissi, R., Pihlajaniemi, T., Kivirikko, K.I., 1997. Assembly of human prolyl 4-hydroxylase and type III collagen in the yeast Pichia pastoris: formation of a stable enzyme tetramer requires coexpression with collagen and assembly of a stable collagen requires coexpression with prolyl 4-hydroxylase. EMBO J. 16, 6702-6712). These properly folded molecules accumulated inside the yeast cell, however, only approximately 10% were found in the culture medium. We report here that replacement of the authentic signal sequence of the human proalpha1(III) with the Saccharomyces cerevisiae alpha mating factor prepro sequence led only to a minor increase in the amount secreted. Immunoelectron microscopy studies indicated that the procollagen molecules accumulate in specific membranous vesicular compartments that are closely associated with the nuclear membrane. Prolyl 4-hydroxylase, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumenal enzyme, was found to be located in the same compartments. Non-helical proalpha1(III) chains produced by expression without recombinant prolyl 4-hydroxylase likewise accumulated within these compartments. The data indicate that properly folded recombinant procollagen molecules accumulate within the ER and do not proceed further in the secretory pathway. This may be related to the large size of the procollagen molecule.     

Rebamipide induces dendritic cell recruitment to N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)-exposed rat gastric mucosa based on IL-1β upregulation

Chondrocytes lose their chondrocytic phenotypes in vitro. The Rho family GTPase ROCK, involved in organizing the actin cytoskeleton, modulates the differentiation status of chondrocytic cells. However, the optimum method to prepare a large number of un-dedifferentiated chondrocytes is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of ROCK inhibitor (ROCKi) on the chondrogenic property of monolayer-cultured articular chondrocytes. Human articular chondrocytes were subcultured in the presence or absence of ROCKi (Y-27632). The expression of chondrocytic marker genes such as SOX9 and COL2A1 was assessed by quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Cellular morphology and viability were evaluated. Chondrogenic redifferentiation potential was examined by a pellet culture procedure. The expression level of SOX9 and COL2A1 was higher in ROCKi-treated chondrocytes than in untreated cells. Chondrocyte morphology varied from a spreading form to a round shape in a ROCKi-dependent manner. In addition, ROCKi treatment stimulated the proliferation of chondrocytes. The deposition of safranin O-stained proteoglycans and type II collagen was highly detected in chondrogenic pellets derived from ROCKi-pretreated chondrocytes. Our results suggest that ROCKi prevents the dedifferentiation of monolayer-cultured chondrocytes, and may be a useful reagent to maintain chondrocytic phenotypes in vitro for chondrocyte-based regeneration therapy.