Competition between domestic dogs and Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) in the Bale Mountains National Park,Ethiopia

The potential effects of the domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) on the Endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) through exploitative and interference competition were studied in the Web Valley of Bale Mountains national park between November 2001 and February 2003. All dogs were owned in the study area and no feral dogs were reported or observed during the research period. The diet of domestic dogs was dominated by barley husks and human faeces which contributed 45% and 20.7% of the total 382 meals observed during focal watch observations. Analysis of dog faeces provided similar results with barley husks, human faeces and animal carcasses occurring in 86.8%, 21.4% and 19.4% of the 1200 faecal samples analysed. Both focal watch and faecal analyses revealed that rodents contributed only a very small proportion of the diet of dogs accounting for only 4.2% of the focal watch and 2.8% of the faecal analysis of roaming dogs. As Ethiopian wolves fed almost exclusively on rodent year round, no significant exploitative competition between dogs and wolves were assessed. Only small proportion of the domestic dogs roamed in the Ethiopian wolf range and interference competition did not appear to be a serious threat for the Ethiopian wolf.     

Livestock predation in the Bale Mountains,Ethiopia

In the Web Valley of the Bale Mountains National Park, the pastoral people suffer from livestock predation by wild carnivores. A total of 704 livestock were reported to be killed by wild carnivores over a 3‐year period, causing a loss of potential revenue of 12 USD per year per household. Reported annual predation rates equated to 1.4% of the livestock population of the study area. Spotted hyaenas were responsible for most livestock predation (57%), followed by leopards (18%), common jackals (16%) and servals (9%). Hyaenas killed all livestock types (horses, donkeys, mules, cattle, goats and sheep) whilst leopards, common jackals and servals killed mostly goats and sheep. A survey of 362 households revealed that the pastoral people keep dogs to protect livestock from carnivores. During 250 nights of observation in the ten settlements, pastoralists were alerted to the presence of hyaenas on 80 occasions by the barking of their dogs. Such tradition of keeping dogs presents a threat to the persistence of the endangered Ethiopian wolf through diseases transmission. Given the frequency of carnivore attacks on livestock, it is desirable to develop alternative livestock protection methods that both minimize livestock losses and reduce the risk of disease transmission to Ethiopian wolves.     

Nest‐site selection and productivity of Vesper Sparrows breeding in grazed habitats

ABSTRACT Livestock grazing in the shortgrass steppe of the Intermountain region of British Columbia may have a negative impact on ground‐nesting birds, but evidence of such an impact is lacking. We examined nest‐site selection and productivity of ground‐nesting Vesper Sparrows (Pooecetes gramineus) across sites with different grazing histories. From 2006 to 2008, we monitored Vesper Sparrow nests and measured vegetation characteristics known to be affected by grazing within nest patches. We used an information‐theoretic approach to test the relative importance of grazing‐affected vegetation variables as predictors of nest‐site selection, nest survival, and nestling condition. Vesper Sparrows selected nest sites with greater cover of late‐seral grass species that decrease in occurrence in response to grazing (i.e., “decreasers”) than was available in random patches in the same territories. Daily nest survival was also lower for nests surrounded by shorter vegetation (odds ratio = 1.12). However, “decreaser” cover was not associated with either of the two indices of productivity measured (daily nest survival probability and nestling condition). In addition, vegetation height, although an important driver of success, was not linked with nest‐site selection, and no vegetation‐cover variable was positively associated with productivity, despite nest concealment being central to our predictions. This suggests that predation risk for nests in areas with shorter vegetation was being elevated through some factor unrelated to concealment. Our results show that grazing reduced both the availability of suitable habitat for and nesting success of Vesper Sparrows, indicating that grazing could pose a threat to population persistence at a broader scale and could potentially contribute to observed declines. Additional research is needed to determine if grazing guidelines in the Intermountain region of British Columbia should be amended, better enforced, or both to prevent regional declines in populations of ground‐nesting grassland birds.     

Herbivore species and grazing intensity regulate community composition and an encroaching woody plant in semi-arid rangeland

Grazing by livestock can influence ecosystems in various ways, including altering plant communities, influencing woody plant encroachment, and determining livestock productivity. Evaluating long term effects of grazing on plant composition is valuable not only to understand herbivory on rangelands but to be able to address the primary factors that can threaten long term livestock productivity. We examined plant species composition and woody plant encroachment 45 years after the initiation of differing grazing treatments within a semiarid savanna of the southern Great Plains, USA. Grazing treatments varied in herbivore type (domestic cattle, sheep, and goats vs. goats only) and grazing intensity (heavy, moderate, and no-herbivory). All individual trees of Juniperus ashei Buchholz, the encroaching woody plant of the area, were removed prior to treatment initiation. Moderate and heavy grazing by a combination of species resulted in similar plant communities, while a history of heavy browsing by goats only and no-herbivory resulted in more distinct communities. Cover of J. ashei did not differ between mixed grazing and no-herbivory treatments, indicating that grazing was not responsible for woody plant encroachment. J. ashei cover within the browsed treatment was a third less compared to other treatments; compositional differences within this treatment are possibly due to reduced cover of woody vegetation. Declines in livestock productivity of the area are likely related to compositional changes resulting from increased woody plants. Livestock production within this semi-arid rangeland is likely unsustainable without management of woody plant encroachment, as communities tend to a closed canopy woodland.     

Molecular genetics of the most endangered canid: the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis

The world's most endangered canid is the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis , which is found in six isolated areas of the Ethiopian highlands with a total population of no more than 500 individuals. Ethiopian wolf populations are declining due to habitat loss and extermination by humans. Moreover, in at least one population, Ethiopian wolves are sympatric with domestic dogs, which may hybridize with them, compete for food, and act as disease vectors. Using molecular techniques, we address four questions concerning Ethiopian wolves that have conservation implications. First, we determine the relationships of Ethiopian wolves to other wolf-like canids by phylogenetic analysis of 2001 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence. Our results suggest that the Ethiopian wolf is a distinct species more closely related to gray wolves and coyotes than to any African canid. The mtDNA sequence similarity with gray wolves implies that the Ethiopian wolf may hybridize with domestic dogs, a recent derivative of the gray wolf. We examine this possibility through mtDNA restriction fragment analysis and analysis of nine microsatellite loci in populations of Ethiopian wolves. The results imply that hybridization has occurred between female Ethiopian wolves and male domestic dogs in one population. Finally, we assess levels of variability within and between two Ethiopian wolf populations. Although these closely situated populations are not differentiated, the level of variability in both is low, suggesting long-term effective population sizes of less than a few hundred individuals. We recommend immediate captive breeding of Ethiopian wolves to protect their gene pool from dilution and further loss of genetic variability.     

Effects of livestock grazing on rangeland biodiversity: A meta‐analysis of grouse populations

Livestock grazing affects over 60% of the world's agricultural lands and can influence rangeland ecosystem services and the quantity and quality of wildlife habitat, resulting in changes in biodiversity. Concomitantly, livestock grazing has the potential to be detrimental to some wildlife species while benefiting other rangeland organisms. Many imperiled grouse species require rangeland landscapes that exhibit diverse vegetation structure and composition to complete their life cycle. However, because of declining populations and reduced distributions, grouse are increasingly becoming a worldwide conservation concern. Grouse, as a suite of upland gamebirds, are often considered an umbrella species for other wildlife and thus used as indicators of rangeland health. With a projected increase in demand for livestock products, better information will be required to mitigate the anthropogenic effects of livestock grazing on rangeland biodiversity. To address this need, we completed a data‐driven and systematic review of the peer‐reviewed literature to determine the current knowledge of the effects of livestock grazing on grouse populations (i.e., chick production and population indices) worldwide. Our meta‐analysis revealed an overall negative effect of livestock grazing on grouse populations. Perhaps more importantly, we identified an information void regarding the effects of livestock grazing on the majority of grouse species. Additionally, the reported indirect effects of livestock grazing on grouse species were inconclusive and more reflective of differences in the experimental design of the available studies. Future studies designed to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of livestock grazing on wildlife should document (i) livestock type, (ii) timing and frequency of grazing, (iii) duration, and (iv) stocking rate. Much of this information was lacking in the available published studies we reviewed, but is essential when making comparisons between different livestock grazing management practices and their potential impacts on rangeland biodiversity.     

Introduced and native herbivores have different effects on plant composition in low productivity ecosystems

Questions

Understanding how livestock grazing alters plant composition in low productivity environments is critical to managing livestock sustainably alongside native and introduced wild herbivore populations. We asked four questions: (1) does recent livestock and rabbit grazing reduce some plant attributes more strongly than others; (2) does grazing by introduced herbivores (i.e. livestock and rabbits) affect plants more strongly than native herbivores (i.e. kangaroos); (3) do the effects of recent livestock grazing differ from the legacy effects of livestock grazing; and (4) does the probability of occurrence of exotic plants increase with increasing net primary productivity (NPP)?

Location

South‐eastern Australia.

Methods

We measured the recent grazing activity of co‐occurring livestock (cattle, sheep, goats), rabbits and kangaroos by counting faecal pellets; historic grazing activity by measuring livestock tracks; and derived NPP from satellite imagery. We used a hierarchical GLMM to simultaneously model the presence or absence (i.e. probability of occurrence) of all plant species as a function of their attributes (growth form, lifespan and origin) to assess their average response to recent grazing, historic grazing and productivity in a broad‐scale regional study.

Results

Recent and historic livestock grazing, rabbit grazing and increasing NPP reduced the average probability of occurrence of plant species, although responses varied among plant attributes. Both recent and historic livestock grazing strongly reduced the average probability of occurrence of native species, and forbs and geophytes, but differed in their relative effects on other growth forms. Recent livestock grazing, rabbit grazing and NPP had similar effects, strongly reducing native species and forbs, geophytes, shrubs and sub‐shrubs. The overall effects of recent kangaroo grazing were relatively weak, with no clear trends for any given plant attribute.

Conclusion

Our results highlight the complex nature of grazing by introduced herbivores compared with native herbivores on different plant attributes. Land managers need to be aware that domestic European livestock, rabbits and other free‐ranging introduced livestock such as goats have detrimental impacts on native plant communities. Our results also show that kangaroo grazing has a relatively benign effect on plant occurrence.     

The interrelationship between productivity,plant species richness and livestock diet: a question of scale?

Question: What relationship exists between productivity, plant species richness and livestock diet? Are the results dependent on scale? Location: A sheep‐grazed Koelerio‐Corynephoretea sandy habitat of the northern upper Rhine (Germany) as a low productivity model system. Methods: The investigation was carried out for three years at a fine scale (2 m²) and for two years at a broad scale (79 m²). Productivity was measured by means of weighed above‐ground phytomass for fine scale and colour‐infrared (CIR) aerial photographs of the same system for fine and broad scales. For both scales, total numbers of vascular plant species and numbers of endangered vascular plant species were extracted from current vegetation relevés. Additionally, we obtained data on livestock diet (grazed phytomass, crude protein content). Results: Statistical analyses show an influence of the year on all variables; relationships between variables are not significant in every year. Species richness and number of endangered species are negatively related to productivity at fine scale while crude protein content and grazed phytomass are positively related to productivity. At the broad scale the diversity‐productivity relationship shows a ‘hump’ with highest species numbers in middle pioneer stages; numbers of endangered species are highest in all pioneer stages. Conclusions: We found a strong impact of scale and year on the diversity‐productivity relationship. It is inappropriate to analyse only small plots (2 m²), and it is necessary to study different years. This vegetation complex is dependent on grazing impact; thus there is an inversely proportional relationship between nature conservation value (high diversity) and livestock nutrition.     

Climate change and variability impacts on grazing herds: Insights from a system dynamics approach for semi‐arid Australian rangelands

Grazing livestock are an important source of food and income for millions of people worldwide. Changes in mean climate and increasing climate variability are affecting grasslands' carrying capacity, thus threatening the livelihood of millions of people as well as the health of grassland ecosystems. Compared with cropping systems, relatively little is known about the impact of such climatic changes on grasslands and livestock productivity and the adaptation responses available to farmers. In this study, we analysed the relationship between changes in mean precipitation, precipitation variability, farming practices and grazing cattle using a system dynamics approach for a semi‐arid Australian rangeland system. We found that forage production and animal stocking rates were significantly affected by drought intensities and durations as well as by long‐term climate trends. After a drought event, herd size recovery times ranged from years to decades in the absence of proactive restocking through animal purchases. Decreases in the annual precipitation means or increases in the interannual (year‐to‐year) and intra‐annual (month‐to‐month) precipitation variability, all reduced herd sizes. The contribution of farming practices versus climate effect on herd dynamics varied depending on the herd characteristics considered. Climate contributed the most to the variance in stocking rates, followed by forage productivity levels and feeding supplementation practices (with or without urea and molasses). While intensification strategies and favourable climates increased long‐term herd sizes, they also resulted in larger reductions in animal numbers during droughts and raised total enteric methane emissions. In the face of future climate trends, the grazing sector will need to increase its adaptability. Understanding which farming strategies can be beneficial, where, and when, as well as the enabling mechanisms required to implement them, will be critical for effectively improving rangelands and the livelihoods of pastoralists worldwide.     

Effects of human–livestock–wildlife interactions on habitat in an eastern Kenya rangeland

Human–livestock–wildlife interactions have increased in Kenyan rangelands in recent years, but few attempts have been made to evaluate their impact on the rangeland habitat. This study identified drivers of increased human–livestock–wildlife interactions in the Meru Conservation Area between 1980 and 2000 and their effects on the vegetation community structure. The drivers were habitat fragmentation, decline in pastoral grazing range, loss of wildlife dispersal areas and increase in livestock population density. Agricultural encroachment increased by over 76% in the western zone adjoining Nyambene ranges and the southern Tharaka area, substantially reducing the pastoral grazing range and wildlife dispersal areas. Livestock population increased by 41%, subjecting areas left for pastoral grazing in the northern dispersal area to prolonged heavy grazing that gave woody plant species a competitive edge over herbaceous life‐forms. Consequently, open wooded grassland, which was the dominant vegetation community in 1980, decreased by c. 40% as bushland vegetation increased by 42%. A substantial proportion of agro pastoralists were encountered around Kinna and Rapsu, areas that were predominantly occupied by pastoralists three decades ago, indicating a possible shift in land use in order to spread risks associated with habitat alterations.     

Minimizing animal welfare harms associated with predation management in agro‐ecosystems

The impacts of wild predators on livestock are a common source of human–wildlife conflict globally, and predators are subject to population control for this reason in many situations. Animal welfare is one of many important considerations affecting decisions about predation management. Recent studies discussing animal welfare in this context have presented arguments emphasizing the importance of avoiding intentional harm to predators, but they have not usually considered harms imposed by predators on livestock and other animals. Efforts to mitigate predation impacts (including ‘no control’ approaches) cause a variety of harms to predators, livestock and other wildlife. Successfully minimizing the overall frequency and magnitude of harms requires consideration of the direct, indirect, intentional and unintentional harms imposed on all animals inhabiting agricultural landscapes. We review the harms resulting from the management of dingoes and other wild dogs in the extensive beef cattle grazing systems of Australia to illustrate how these negative impacts can be minimized across both wild and domestic species present on a farm or in a free‐ranging livestock grazing context. Similar to many other predator–livestock conflicts, wild dogs impose intermittent harms on beef cattle (especially calves) including fatal predation, non‐fatal attack (mauling and biting), pathogen transmission, and fear‐ or stress‐related effects. Wild dog control tools and strategies impose harms on dingoes and other wildlife including stress, pain and death as a consequence of both lethal and non‐lethal control approaches. To balance these various sources of harm, we argue that the tactical use of lethal predator control approaches can result in harming the least number of individual animals, given certain conditions. This conclusion conflicts with both traditional (e.g. continuous or ongoing lethal control) and contemporary (e.g. predator‐friendly or no‐control) predation management approaches. The general and transferable issues, approaches and principles we describe have broad applicability to many other human–wildlife conflicts around the world.     

Numbers and presence of guarding dogs affect wolf and leopard predation on livestock in northeastern Iran

Livestock predation can pose socio-economic impacts on rural livelihoods and is the main cause of retaliatory killings of carnivores in many countries. Therefore, appropriate interventions to reduce livestock predation, lower conflict and promote coexistence are needed. Livestock guarding dogs have been traditionally used to reduce predation, yet details regarding the use of dogs, especially the number of dogs per herd effectively required, are rarely studied. In this study, we assessed how the number and presence of guarding dogs in a herd can reduce livestock losses to leopard and wolf in corrals at night and on grazing grounds in day-time. Using systematic interview surveys (2016-2019), we documented sheep/goat losses per attack (predation rates) from 139 shepherds across 32 villages around Golestan National Park, Iran. We analysed the effects of the number of dogs, presence of dogs, presence of shepherds, seasons, corral quality, livestock number, dog size, distance to villages and distance to reserve on predation rates using generalized linear models. For the leopard model, dog presence significantly decreased (β = –1.80, 95% confidence interval –2.61 to –0.81) predation rates during day-time to 1.41 individuals per attack. For wolf attacks in corrals at night, predation rates significantly decreased (β = –0.29, –0.54 to –0.04) with increasing dog numbers. Also, shepherd presence (β = –0.56, –1.10 to –0.10) and herd size (β = –0.36, –0.60 to –0.12) significantly reduced predation rates. In the wolf day-time model, shepherd presence significantly decreased (β = –0.93, –1.74 to –0.10) predation rates. Our study suggests that (1) using dogs can reduce, but not eliminate, predation by leopards during day-time; (2) with every additional dog, predation rates by wolves in corrals at night are likely to decrease on average by 25.2%; and (3) the presence of shepherds in corrals at night and during day-time can reduce predation rates.     

Regional productivity mediates the effects of grazing disturbance on plant cover and patch‐size distribution in arid and semi‐arid communities

Patch‐size distribution and plant cover are strongly associated to arid ecosystem functioning and may be a warning signal for the onset of desertification under changes in disturbance regimes. However, the interaction between regional productivity level and human‐induced disturbance regime as drivers for vegetation structure and dynamics remain poorly studied. We studied grazing disturbance effects on plant cover and patchiness in three plant communities located along a regional productivity gradient in Patagonia (Argentina): a semi‐desert (low‐productivity community), a shrub‐grass steppe (intermediate‐productivity community) and a grass steppe (high‐productivity community). We sampled paddocks with different sheep grazing pressure (continuous disturbance gradients) in all three communities. In each paddock, the presence or absence of perennial vegetation was recorded every 10 cm along a 50 m transect. Grazing effects on vegetation structure depended on the community and its association to the regional productivity. Grazing decreased total plant cover while increasing both the frequency of small patches and the inter‐patch distance in all communities. However, the size of these effects was the greatest in the high‐productivity community. Dominant species responses to grazing explained vegetation patch‐ and inter‐patch‐size distribution patterns. As productivity decreases, dominant species showed a higher degree of grazing resistance, probably because traits of species adapted to high aridity allow them to resist herbivore disturbance. In conclusion, our findings suggest that regional productivity mediates grazing disturbance impacts on vegetation mosaic. The changes within the same range of grazing pressure have higher effects on communities found in environments with higher productivity, markedly promoting their desertification. Understanding the complex interactions between environmental aridity and human‐induced disturbances is a key aspect for maintaining patchiness structure and dynamics, which has important implications for drylands management.     

Long‐term persistence of wildlife populations in a pastoral area

Facilitating coexistence between people and wildlife is a major conservation challenge in East Africa. Some conservation models aim to balance the needs of people and wildlife, but the effectiveness of these models is rarely assessed. Using a case‐study approach, we assessed the ecological performance of a pastoral area in northern Tanzania (Manyara Ranch) and established a long‐term wildlife population monitoring program (carried out intermittently from 2003 to 2008 and regularly from 2011 to 2019) embedded in a distance sampling framework. By comparing density estimates of the road transect‐based long‐term monitoring to estimates derived from systematically distributed transects, we found that the bias associated with nonrandom placement of transects was nonsignificant. Overall, cattle and sheep and goat reached the greatest densities and several wildlife species occurred at densities similar (zebra, wildebeest, waterbuck, Kirk's dik‐dik) or possibly even greater (giraffe, eland, lesser kudu, Grant's gazelle, Thomson's gazelle) than in adjacent national parks in the same ecosystem. Generalized linear mixed models suggested that most wildlife species (8 out of 14) reached greatest densities during the dry season, that wildlife population densities either remained constant or increased over the 17‐year period, and that herbivorous livestock species remained constant, while domestic dog population decreased over time. Cross‐species correlations did not provide evidence for interference competition between grazing or mixed livestock species and wildlife species but indicate possible negative relationships between domestic dog and warthog populations. Overall, wildlife and livestock populations in Manyara Ranch appear to coexist over the 17‐year span. Most likely, this is facilitated by existing connectivity to adjacent protected areas, effective anti‐poaching efforts, spatio‐temporal grazing restrictions, favorable environmental conditions of the ranch, and spatial heterogeneity of surface water and habitats. This long‐term case study illustrates the potential of rangelands to simultaneously support wildlife conservation and human livelihood goals if livestock grazing is restricted in space, time, and numbers.     

Habitat shift and time budget of the Tibetan argali: the influence of livestock grazing

Livestock production is the primary source of livelihood and income in most of the high steppe and alpine regions of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. In some areas, especially those established or proposed for biodiversity conservation, recent increases in populations of domestic livestock, primarily sheep and goats, have raised concern about domestic animals competitively excluding wild herbivores from the rangelands. We evaluated the influence of domestic sheep and goat grazing on the habitat use and time budget of the endangered Tibetan argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni in the proposed Gya-Miru Wildlife Sanctuary, Ladakh, India. We asked if the domestic sheep and goat grazing and collateral human activities relegate the argali to sub-optimal habitats, and alter their foraging time budgets. Data were collected on habitat use and time budget of a population of c. 50 argalis before and after c. 2,000 sheep and goats moved onto their winter pasture in the Tsabra catchment of the aforementioned reserve. Following the introduction of domestic sheep and goats, argalis continued to use the same catchment but shifted to steeper habitats, closer to cliffs, with lower vegetation cover, thus abandoning previously used plant communities with denser cover. Argalis’ active time spent foraging also decreased by 10% in response to the presence of livestock. These results suggest a clear disturbance effect of livestock on argalis, and indicate a potential for competition, conceivably a significant disadvantage for argalis in winter when forage availability is minimal.     

Effects of livestock exclusion on in‐stream habitat and benthic invertebrate assemblages in montane streams

1. Stream and riparian ecosystems in arid montane areas, like the interior western United States, are often just narrow mesic strands, but support diverse and productive habitats. Meadows along many such streams have long been used for rangeland grazing, and, while impacts to riparian areas are relatively well known, the effect of livestock grazing on aquatic life in streams has received less attention. 2. Attempts to link grazing impacts to disturbance have been hindered by the lack of spatial and temporal replication. In this study, we compared channel features and benthic macroinvertebrate communities (i) between 16 stream reaches on two grazed allotments and between 22 reaches on two allotments where livestock had been completely removed for 4 years, (ii) before and after the 4‐year grazing respite at a subset of eight sites and (iii) inside and outside of small‐scale fenced grazing exclosures (eight pairings; 10+ year exclosures) in the meadows of the Golden Trout Wilderness, California (U.S.A.). 3. We evaluated grazing disturbance at the reach scale in terms of the effects of livestock trampling on per cent bank erosion and found that macroinvertebrate richness metrics were negatively correlated with bank erosion, while the percentage of tolerant taxa increased. 4. All macroinvertebrate richness metrics were significantly lower in grazed areas. Bank angle, temperature, fine sediment cover and erosion were higher in grazed areas, while riparian cover was lower. Regression models identified riparian cover, in‐stream substratum, bank conditions and bankfull width‐to‐depth ratios as the most important for explaining variability in macroinvertebrate richness metrics. 5. Small‐scale grazing exclosures showed no improvements for in‐stream communities and only moderate positive effects on riparian vegetation. In contrast, metrics of macroinvertebrate richness increased significantly after a 4‐year period of no grazing. 6. The success of grazing removal reported here suggests that short‐term removal of livestock at the larger, allotment meadow spatial scale is more effective than long‐term, but small‐scale, local riparian area fencing, and yields promising results in achieving stream channel, riparian and aquatic biological recovery.     

The effects of livestock grazing on biodiversity are multi‐trophic: a meta‐analysis

Anthropogenic disturbance has generated a significant loss of biodiversity worldwide and grazing by domestic herbivores is a contributing disturbance. Although the effects of grazing on plants are commonly explored, here we address the potential multi‐trophic effects on animal biodiversity (e.g. herbivores, pollinators and predators). We conducted a meta‐analysis on 109 independent studies that tested the response of animals or plants to livestock grazing relative to livestock excluded. Across all animals, livestock exclusion increased abundance and diversity, but these effects were greatest for trophic levels directly dependent on plants, such as herbivores and pollinators. Detritivores were the only trophic level whose abundance decreased with livestock exclusion. We also found that the number of years since livestock was excluded influenced the community and that the effects of grazer exclusion on animal diversity were strongest in temperate climates. These findings synthesise the effects of livestock grazing beyond plants and demonstrate the indirect impacts of livestock grazing on multiple trophic levels in the animal community. We identified the potentially long‐term impacts that livestock grazing can have on lower trophic levels and consequences for biological conservation. We also highlight the potentially inevitable cost to global biodiversity from livestock grazing that must be balanced against socio‐economic benefits.     

Political Change and Factors Limiting Numbers of Wild and Domestic Ungulates in Kazakhstan

We examine factors regulating numbers of domestic livestock and saiga antelopes during the major periods of Kazakhstan's history. In the pre-Soviet period livestock migrations were relatively unrestricted and covered huge distances. Little winter feed or veterinary care was provided for domestic livestock and numbers were regulated largely by winter snow or ice cover. Drought affected fecundity but did not cause large-scale mortality. During the Soviet period the provision of winter feed shielded domestic livestock from winter mortality while hunting controls allowed saiga numbers to recover from overhunting. Livestock and saiga numbers during this period were high and there is evidence that productivity was affected. However, there were no crashes in livestock numbers linked to high densities, probably because rainfall variability is relatively low and catastrophic droughts are rare. Today livestock numbers in Kazakhstan have crashed because of the withdrawal of state support and the use of animals as currency. The collapse of the state also meant the end of hunting controls and increased poverty, which has lead to widespread saiga poaching and dramatic population declines.     

Assessment of coyote–wolf–dog admixture using ancestry‐informative diagnostic SNPs

The evolutionary importance of hybridization as a source of new adaptive genetic variation is rapidly gaining recognition. Hybridization between coyotes and wolves may have introduced adaptive alleles into the coyote gene pool that facilitated an expansion in their geographic range and dietary niche. Furthermore, hybridization between coyotes and domestic dogs may facilitate adaptation to human‐dominated environments. We genotyped 63 ancestry‐informative single‐nucleotide polymorphisms in 427 canids to examine the prevalence, spatial distribution and the ecology of admixture in eastern coyotes. Using multivariate methods and Bayesian clustering analyses, we estimated the relative contributions of western coyotes, western and eastern wolves, and domestic dogs to the admixed ancestry of Ohio and eastern coyotes. We found that eastern coyotes form an extensive hybrid swarm, with all our samples having varying levels of admixture. Ohio coyotes, previously thought to be free of admixture, are also highly admixed with wolves and dogs. Coyotes in areas of high deer density are genetically more wolf‐like, suggesting that natural selection for wolf‐like traits may result in local adaptation at a fine geographic scale. Our results, in light of other previously published studies of admixture in Canis, revealed a pattern of sex‐biased hybridization, presumably generated by male wolves and dogs mating with female coyotes. This study is the most comprehensive genetic survey of admixture in eastern coyotes and demonstrates that the frequency and scope of hybridization can be quantified with relatively few ancestry‐informative markers.     

Ethiopian wolves conflict with pastoralists in small Afroalpine relicts

The peaceful coexistence between people and the rare Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis is being challenged by conflicts rising due to livestock predation by wild carnivores. Understanding the cultural and socio‐economic context of these conflicts can help to prevent negative attitudes and retaliatory killings, which have the potential to seriously compromise the survival of Ethiopian wolf populations in small Afroalpine relicts. With this objective in mind, questionnaire surveys were conducted in 140 households around the Aboi Gara range in north Ethiopia. Half of the households reported losing sheep and goats to wolves and golden jackals Canis aureus, with an annual average loss of 1.2 heads per year (10% of the average herd size), equivalent to 92 US$. Aboi Gara pastoralists considered wolves and jackals to be equally responsible for livestock killings. Households with large herds, closer to Afroalpine habitats, and using Afroalpine pastures for longer periods, reported more predation by wild carnivores. Most respondents (62%) expressed a positive attitude towards Ethiopian wolves, particularly literate people and those with smaller herds. We suggest ways to diminish conflict, including best livestock guarding techniques to lessen the risk of livestock predation by wild carnivores in Afroalpine areas.