Attribution of seasonal leaf area index trends in the northern latitudes with “optimally” integrated ecosystem models

Significant increases in remotely sensed vegetation indices in the northern latitudes since the 1980s have been detected and attributed at annual and growing season scales. However, we presently lack a systematic understanding of how vegetation responds to asymmetric seasonal environmental changes. In this study, we first investigated trends in the seasonal mean leaf area index (LAI) at northern latitudes (north of 30°N) between 1982 and 2009 using three remotely sensed long‐term LAI data sets. The most significant LAI increases occurred in summer (0.009 m² m^?2 year^?1, p < .01), followed by autumn (0.005 m² m^?2 year^?1, p < .01) and spring (0.003 m² m^?2 year^?1, p < .01). We then quantified the contribution of elevating atmospheric CO₂ concentration (eCO₂), climate change, nitrogen deposition, and land cover change to seasonal LAI increases based on factorial simulations from 10 state‐of‐the‐art ecosystem models. Unlike previous studies that used multimodel ensemble mean (MME), we used the Bayesian model averaging (BMA) to optimize the integration of model ensemble. The optimally integrated ensemble LAI changes are significantly closer to the observed seasonal LAI changes than the traditional MME results. The BMA factorial simulations suggest that eCO₂ provides the greatest contribution to increasing LAI trends in all seasons (0.003–0.007 m² m^?2 year^?1), and is the main factor driving asymmetric seasonal LAI trends. Climate change controls the spatial pattern of seasonal LAI trends and dominates the increase in seasonal LAI in the northern high latitudes. The effects of nitrogen deposition and land use change are relatively small in all seasons (around 0.0002 m² m^?2 year^?1 and 0.0001–0.001 m² m^?2 year^?1, respectively). Our analysis of the seasonal LAI responses to the interactions between seasonal changes in environmental factors offers a new perspective on the response of global vegetation to environmental changes.     

Flow extremes and benthic organic matter shape the metabolism of a headwater Mediterranean stream

1. Single‐station diel oxygen curves were used to monitor the oxygen metabolism of an intermittent, forested third‐order stream (Fuirosos) in the Mediterranean area, over a period of 22 months. Ecosystem respiration (ER) and gross primary production (GPP) were estimated and related to organic matter inputs and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in order to understand the effect of the riparian forest on stream metabolism. 2. Annual ER was 1690 g O₂ m^?2 year^?1 and annual GPP was 275 g O₂ m^?2 year^?1. Fuirosos was therefore a heterotrophic stream, with P : R ratios averaging 0.16. 3. GPP rates were relatively low, ranging from 0.05 to 1.9 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1. The maximum values of GPP occurred during a few weeks in spring, and ended when the riparian canopy was fully closed. The phenology of the riparian vegetation was an important determinant of light availability, and consequently, of GPP. 4. On a daily scale, light and temperature were the most important factors governing the shape of photosynthesis–irradiance (P–I) curves. Several patterns could be generalised in the P–I relationships. Hysteresis‐type curves were characteristic of late autumn and winter. Light saturation responses (that occurred at irradiances higher than 90 μE m^?2 s^?1) were characteristic of early spring. Linear responses occurred during late spring, summer and early autumn when there was no evidence of light saturation. 5. Rates of ER were high when compared with analogous streams, ranging from 0.4 to 32 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1. ER was highest in autumn 2001, when organic matter accumulations on the streambed were extremely high. By contrast, the higher discharge in autumn 2002 prevented these accumulations and caused lower ER. The Mediterranean climate, and in its effect the hydrological regime, were mainly responsible for the temporal variation in benthic organic matter, and consequently of ER.     

Annual cycle and inter-annual variability of gross primary production and ecosystem respiration in a floodprone river during a 15-year period

1. Temporal variation in ecosystem metabolism over a 15‐year period (1986–2000) was evaluated in a seventh order channelised gravel bed river (mean annual discharge 48.7 m³ s^?1) of the Swiss Plateau. The river is subject to frequent disturbance by bed‐moving spates. Daily integrals of gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER) were calculated based on single‐station diel oxygen curves. 2. Seasonal decomposition of the time series of monthly metabolism rates showed that approximately 50% of the variation of GPP and ER can be attributed to season. Annual GPP averaged 5.0 ± 0.6 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1 and showed no long‐term trend. 3. Ecosystem respiration, averaging 6.2 ± 1.4 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1, declined from 8.8 to 4.1 g O₂ m^?2 day^?1 during the 15‐year period. This significant trend paralleled a decline in nitrate and soluble reactive phosphorus concentrations, and the biochemical oxygen demand discharged by sewage treatment facilities upstream of the study reach. The ratio of GPP to ER (P/R) increased from 0.53 to about 1 as consequence of ER reduction. 4. Bed moving spates reduced GPP by 49% and ER by 19%. Postspate recovery of GPP was rapid between spring and autumn and slow during winter. Recovery of ER lacked any seasonal pattern. Annual patterns of daily GPP and to a minor extent of daily ER can be described as a sequence of recovery periods frequently truncated by spates. 5. The study showed that disturbance by frequent bed‐moving spates resulted in major stochastic variation in GPP and ER but annual patterns were still characterised by a distinct seasonal cycle. It also became evident that stream metabolism is a suitable method to assess effects of gradual changes in water quality.     

Limited effect of ozone reductions on the 20‐year photosynthesis trend at Harvard forest

Ozone (O₃) damage to leaves can reduce plant photosynthesis, which suggests that declines in ambient O₃ concentrations ([O₃]) in the United States may have helped increase gross primary production (GPP) in recent decades. Here, we assess the effect of long‐term changes in ambient [O₃] using 20 years of observations at Harvard forest. Using artificial neural networks, we found that the effect of the inclusion of [O₃] as a predictor was slight, and independent of O₃ concentrations, which suggests limited high‐frequency O₃ inhibition of GPP at this site. Simulations with a terrestrial biosphere model, however, suggest an average long‐term O₃ inhibition of 10.4% for 1992–2011. A decline of [O₃] over the measurement period resulted in moderate predicted GPP trends of 0.02–0.04 μmol C m^?2 s^?1 yr^?1, which is negligible relative to the total observed GPP trend of 0.41 μmol C m^?2 s^?1 yr^?1. A similar conclusion is achieved with the widely used AOT40 metric. Combined, our results suggest that ozone reductions at Harvard forest are unlikely to have had a large impact on the photosynthesis trend over the past 20 years. Such limited effects are mainly related to the slow responses of photosynthesis to changes in [O₃]. Furthermore, we estimate that 40% of photosynthesis happens in the shade, where stomatal conductance and thus [O₃] deposition is lower than for sunlit leaves. This portion of GPP remains unaffected by [O₃], thus helping to buffer the changes of total photosynthesis due to varied [O₃]. Our analyses suggest that current ozone reductions, although significant, cannot substantially alleviate the damages to forest ecosystems.     

Reconstruction and attribution of the carbon sink of European forests between 1950 and 2000

European forests are an important carbon sink; however, the relative contributions to this sink of climate, atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]), nitrogen deposition and forest management are under debate. We attributed the European carbon sink in forests using ORCHIDEE‐FM, a process‐based vegetation model that differs from earlier versions of ORCHIDEE by its explicit representation of stand growth and idealized forest management. The model was applied on a grid across Europe to simulate changes in the net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of forests with and without changes in climate, [CO₂] and age structure, the three drivers represented in ORCHIDEE‐FM. The model simulates carbon stocks and volume increment that are comparable – root mean square error of 2 m³ ha^?1 yr^?1 and 1.7 kg C m^?2 respectively – with inventory‐derived estimates at country level for 20 European countries. Our simulations estimate a mean European forest NEP of 175 ± 52 g C m^?2 yr^?1 in the 1990s. The model simulation that is most consistent with inventory records provides an upwards trend of forest NEP of 1 ± 0.5 g C m^?2 yr^?2 between 1950 and 2000 across the EU 25. Furthermore, the method used for reconstructing past age structure was found to dominate its contribution to temporal trends in NEP. The potentially large fertilizing effect of nitrogen deposition cannot be told apart, as the model does not explicitly simulate the nitrogen cycle. Among the three drivers that were considered in this study, the fertilizing effect of increasing [CO₂] explains about 61% of the simulated trend, against 26% to changes in climate and 13% only to changes in forest age structure. The major role of [CO₂] at the continental scale is due to its homogeneous impact on net primary productivity (NPP). At the local scale, however, changes in climate and forest age structure often dominate trends in NEP by affecting NPP and heterotrophic respiration.     

2020-2050年CO2施肥效应促进全球陆地生态系统碳吸收

CO₂施肥效应是全球变绿的主要原因,随着大气中CO₂浓度的持续增加,预估未来气候变化条件下,CO₂施肥效应对陆地生态系统的影响对减缓全球气候变化具有重大意义。基于未来气候情景数据和Farquhar模型,并结合生态过程模型BEPS(Boreal Ecosystem Productivity Simulator),定量化研究2020—2050年CO₂施肥效应对全球叶面积指数(LAI)和总初级生产力(GPP)的影响。研究结果显示2020—2050年,在RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5气候情景下,CO₂施肥效应导致的LAI年际变化趋势分别为0.002、0.003和0.005 m^-2m^-2a^-1;三个气候情景下CO₂施肥效应对LAI的影响为CO₂每增加0.1%,LAI平均增加约8.1%—9.2%,由此导致GPP对应增加7.9%—14.6%;由CO₂施...     

Annual balances and extended seasonal modelling of carbon fluxes from a temperate fen cropped to festulolium and tall fescue under two‐cut and three‐cut harvesting regimes

This study reports the annual carbon balance of a drained riparian fen under two‐cut or three‐cut managements of festulolium and tall fescue. CO₂ fluxes measured with closed chambers were partitioned into gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER) for modelling according to environmental factors (light and temperature) and canopy reflectance (ratio vegetation index, RVI). Methodological assessments were made of (i) GPP models with or without temperature functions (Ft) to adjust GPP constraints imposed by low temperature (<10 °C) and (ii) ER models with RVI or GPP parameters as biomass proxies. The sensitivity of the models was also tested on partial datasets including only alternate measurement campaigns and on datasets only from the crop growing period. Use of Ft in GPP models effectively corrected GPP overestimation in cold periods, and this approach was used throughout. Annual fluxes obtained with ER models including RVI or GPP parameters were similar, and also annual GPP and ER fluxes obtained with full and partial datasets were similar. Annual CO₂ fluxes and biomass yield were not significantly different in the crop/management combinations although the individual collars (n = 12) showed some variations in GPP (?1818 to ?2409 g CO₂‐C m^?2), ER (1071 to 1738 g CO₂‐C m^?2), net ecosystem exchange (NEE, ?669 to ?949 g CO₂‐C m^?2) and biomass yield (556 to 1044 g CO₂‐C m^?2). Net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB), as the sum of NEE and biomass carbon export, was only slightly negative to positive in all crop/management combinations. NECBs, interpreted as emission factors, tended to favour the least biomass producing systems as the best management options in relation to climate saving carbon balances. Yet, considering the down‐stream advantages of biomass for fossil fuel replacement, yield‐scaled carbon fluxes are suggested to be given additional considerations for comparison of management options in terms of atmospheric impact.     

Century-Scale Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Storage and Flux to Multiple Environmental Changes in the Southern United States

Terrestrial ecosystems in the southern United States (SUS) have experienced a complex set of changes in climate, atmospheric CO₂ concentration, tropospheric ozone (O₃), nitrogen (N) deposition, and land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) during the past century. Although each of these factors has received attention for its alterations on ecosystem carbon (C) dynamics, their combined effects and relative contributions are still not well understood. By using the Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model (DLEM) in combination with spatially explicit, long-term historical data series on multiple environmental factors, we examined the century-scale responses of ecosystem C storage and flux to multiple environmental changes in the SUS. The results indicated that multiple environmental changes shifted SUS ecosystems from a C source of 1.20?±?0.56?Pg (1?Pg?=?10¹⁵?g) during the period 1895 to 1950, to a C sink of 2.00?±?0.94?Pg during the period 1951 to 2007. Over the entire period spanning 1895–2007, SUS ecosystems were a net C sink of 0.80?±?0.38?Pg. The C sink was primarily due to an increase in the vegetation C pool, whereas the soil C pool decreased during the study period. The spatiotemporal changes of C storage were caused by changes in multiple environmental factors. Among the five factors examined (climate, LULCC, N deposition, atmospheric CO₂, and tropospheric O₃), elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration was the largest contributor to C sequestration, followed by N deposition. LULCC, climate, and tropospheric O₃ concentration contributed to C losses during the study period. The SUS ecosystem C sink was largely the result of interactive effects among multiple environmental factors, particularly atmospheric N input and atmospheric CO_2.     

Diagnosing and assessing uncertainties of terrestrial ecosystem models in a multimodel ensemble experiment: 1. Primary production

We conducted an ensemble modeling exercise using the Terrestrial Observation and Prediction System (TOPS) to evaluate sources of uncertainty in carbon flux estimates resulting from structural differences among ecosystem models. The experiment ran public‐domain versions of biome‐bgc, lpj, casa , and tops‐bgc over North America at 8 km resolution and for the period of 1982–2006. We developed the Hierarchical Framework for Diagnosing Ecosystem Models (HFDEM) to separate the simulated biogeochemistry into a cascade of three functional tiers and sequentially examine their characteristics in climate (temperature–precipitation) and other spaces. Analysis of the simulated annual gross primary production (GPP) in the climate domain indicates a general agreement among the models, all showing optimal GPP in regions where the relationship between annual average temperature (T, °C) and annual total precipitation (P, mm) is defined by P=50T+500. However, differences in simulated GPP are identified in magnitudes and distribution patterns. For forests, the GPP gradient along P=50T+500 ranges from ～50 g C yr^?1 m^?2 °C^?1 (casa ) to ～125 g C yr^?1 m^?2 °C^?1 (biome‐bgc ) in cold/temperate regions; for nonforests, the diversity among GPP distributions is even larger. Positive linear relationships are found between annual GPP and annual mean leaf area index (LAI) in all models. For biome‐bgc and lpj , such relationships lead to a positive feedback from LAI growth to GPP enhancement. Different approaches to constrain this feedback lead to different sensitivity of the models to disturbances such as fire, which contribute significantly to the diversity in GPP stated above. The ratios between independently simulated NPP and GPP are close to 50% on average; however, their distribution patterns vary significantly between models, reflecting the difficulties in estimating autotrophic respiration across various climate regimes. Although these results are drawn from our experiments with the tested model versions, the developed methodology has potential for other model exercises.     

Simulated effects of low atmospheric CO2 on structure and composition of North American vegetation at the Last Glacial Maximum

1. Physiological experiments have indicated that the lower CO₂ levels of the last glaciation (200 μmol mol^?1) probably reduced plant water-use efficiency (WUE) and that they combined with increased aridity and colder temperatures to alter vegetation structure and composition at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). 2. The effects of low CO₂ on vegetation structure were investigated using BIOME3 simulations of leaf area index (LAI), and a two-by-two factorial experimental design (modern/LGM CO₂, modern/LGM climate).3. Using BIOME3, and a combination of lowered CO₂ and simulated LGM climate (from the NCAR-CCM1 model), results in the introduction of additional xeric vegetation types between open woodland and closed-canopy forest along a latitudinal gradient in eastern North America.4. The simulated LAI of LGM vegetation was 25–60% lower in many regions of central and eastern United States relative to modern climate, indicating that glacial vegetation was much more open than today.5. Comparison of factorial simulations show that low atmospheric CO₂ has the potential to alter vegetation structure (LAI) to a greater extent than LGM climate.6. If the magnitude of LAI reductions simulated for glacial North America were global, then low atmospheric CO₂ may have promoted atmospheric warming and increased aridity, through alteration of rates of water and heat exchange with the atmosphere.     

Gross primary productivity and transpiration flux of the Australian vegetation from 1788 to 1988 AD: effects of CO2 and land use change

We present a novel approach to estimating the transpiration flux and gross primary productivity (GPP) from Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, leaf functional types, and readily available climate data. We use this approach to explore the impact of variations in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ([CO₂]) and consequent predicted changes in vegetation cover, on the transpiration flux and GPP. There was a near 1 : 1 relationship between GPP estimated with this transpiration flux approach and that estimated using a radiation‐use efficiency (RUE) approach. Model estimates are presented for the Australian continent under three vegetation–[CO₂] scenarios: the present vegetation and hypothetical ‘natural’ vegetation cover with atmospheric CO₂ concentration ([CO₂]) of 350 μmol mol^?1 (pveg₃₅₀ and nveg₃₅₀), and for the ‘natural’ vegetation with [CO₂] 280 μmol mol^?1 (nveg₂₈₀). Estimated continental GPP is 6.5, 6.3 and 4.3 Gt C yr^?1 for pveg₃₅₀, nveg₃₅₀ and nveg₂₈₀, respectively_. The corresponding transpiration fluxes are 232, 224 and 190 mm H₂O yr^?1. The contribution of the raingreen and evergreen components of the canopy to these fluxes are also estimated.     

Seasonal and interannual variation in carbon dioxide exchange and carbon balance in a northern temperate grassland

Net ecosystem carbon dioxide (CO₂) exchange (NEE) was measured in a northern temperate grassland near Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada for three growing seasons using the eddy covariance technique. The study objectives were to document how NEE and its major component processes—gross photosynthesis (GPP) and total ecosystem respiration (TER)—vary seasonally and interannually, and to examine how environmental and physiological factors influence the annual C budget. The greatest difference among the three study years was the amount of precipitation received. The annual precipitation for 1998 (481.7 mm) was significantly above the 1971–2000 mean (± SD, 377.9 ± 97.0 mm) for Lethbridge, whereas 1999 (341.3 mm) was close to average, and 2000 (275.5 mm) was significantly below average. The high precipitation and soil moisture in 1998 allowed a much higher GPP and an extended period of net carbon gain relative to 1999 and 2000. In 1998, the peak NEE was a gain of 5 g C m^?2 d^?1 (day 173). Peak NEE was lower and also occurred earlier in the year on days 161 (3.2 g C m^?2 d^?1) and 141 (2.4 g C m^?2 d^?1) in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Change in soil moisture was the most important ecological factor controlling C gain in this grassland ecosystem. Soil moisture content was positively correlated with leaf area index (LAI). Gross photosynthesis was strongly correlated with changes in both LAI and canopy nitrogen (N) content. Maximum GPP (A_max: value calculated from a rectangular hyperbola fitted to the relationship between GPP and incident photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD)) was 27.5, 12.9 and 8.6 µmol m^?2 s^?1 during 1998, 1999 and 2000, respectively. The apparent quantum yield also differed among years at the time of peak photosynthetic activity, with calculated values of 0.0254, 0.018 and 0.018 during 1998, 1999 and 2000, respectively. The ecosystem accumulated a total of 111.9 g C m^?2 from the time the eddy covariance measurements were initiated in June 1998 until the end of December 2000, with most of that C gained during 1998. There was a net uptake of almost 21 g C m^?2 in 1999, whereas a net loss of 18 g C m^?2 was observed in 2000. The net uptake of C during 1999 was the combined result of slightly higher GPP (287.2 vs. 272.3 g C m^?2 year^?1) and lower TER (266.6 vs. 290.4 g C m^?2 year^?1) than occurred in 2000.     

Is productivity of mesic savannas light limited or water limited? Results of a simulation study

A soil–plant–atmosphere model was used to estimate gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET) of a tropical savanna in Australia. This paper describes model modifications required to simulate the substantial C4 grass understory together with C3 trees. The model was further improved to include a seasonal distribution of leaf area and foliar nitrogen through 10 canopy layers. Model outputs were compared with a 5‐year eddy covariance dataset. Adding the C4 photosynthesis component improved the model efficiency and root‐mean‐squared error (RMSE) for total ecosystem GPP by better emulating annual peaks and troughs in GPP across wet and dry seasons. The C4 photosynthesis component had minimal impact on modelled values of ET. Outputs of GPP from the modified model agreed well with measured values, explaining between 79% and 90% of the variance and having a low RMSE (0.003–0.281 g C m^?2 day^?1). Approximately, 40% of total annual GPP was contributed by C4 grasses. Total (trees and grasses) wet season GPP was approximately 75–80% of total annual GPP. Light‐use efficiency (LUE) was largest for the wet season and smallest in the dry season and C4 LUE was larger than that of the trees. A sensitivity analysis of GPP revealed that daily GPP was most sensitive to changes in leaf area index (LAI) and foliar nitrogen (N_f) and relatively insensitive to changes in maximum carboxylation rate (V_cmax), maximum electron transport rate (J_max) and minimum leaf water potential (ψ_min). The modified model was also able to represent daily and seasonal patterns in ET, (explaining 68–81% of variance) with a low RMSE (0.038–0.19 mm day^?1). Current values of N_f, LAI and other parameters appear to be colimiting for maximizing GPP. By manipulating LAI and soil moisture content inputs, we show that modelled GPP is limited by light interception rather than water availability at this site.     

Partitioning of river metabolism identifies phytoplankton as a major contributor in the regulated Murray River (Australia)

1. River metabolism was measured over an annual cycle at three sites distributed along a 1000 km length of the lowland Murray River, Australia. 2. Whole system metabolism was measured using water column changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations while planktonic and benthic metabolism were partitioned using light‐dark bottles and benthic chambers. 3. Annual gross primary production (GPP) ranged from 775 to 1126 g O₂ m^?2 year^?1 which in comparison with rivers of similar physical characteristics is moderately productive. 4. Community respiration (CR) ranged from 872 to 1284 g O₂ m^?2 year^?1 so that annual net ecosystem production (NEP) was near zero, suggesting photosynthesis and respiration were balanced and that allochthonous organic carbon played a minor role in fuelling metabolism. 5. Planktonic rates of gross photosynthesis and respiration were similar to those of the total channel, indicating that plankton were responsible for much of the observed metabolism. 6. Respiration rates correlated with phytoplankton standing crop (estimated as the sum of GPP plus the chlorophyll concentration in carbon units), yielding a specific respiration rate of ?1.1 g O₂ g C^?1 day^?1. The respiration rate was equivalent to 19% of the maximum rate of phytoplankton photosynthesis, which is typical of diatoms. 7. The daily GPP per unit phytoplankton biomass correlated with the mean irradiance of the water column giving a constant carbon specific photon fixation rate of 0.35 gO₂ g Chl a^?1 day^?1 per μmole photons m^?2 s^?1 (ca. 0.08 per mole photons m^?2 on a carbon basis) indicating that light availability determined daily primary production. 8. Annual phytoplankton net production (NP) estimates at two sites indicated 25 and 36 g C m^?2 year^?1 were available to support riverine food webs, equivalent to 6% and 11% of annual GPP. 9. Metabolised organic carbon was predominantly derived from phytoplankton and was fully utilised, suggesting that food‐web production was restricted by the energy supply.     

Modelling Seasonal and Inter-annual Variations in Carbon and Water Fluxes in an Arid-Zone <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia</Emphasis> Savanna Woodland, 1981–2012

Changes in climatic characteristics such as seasonal and inter-annual variability may affect ecosystem structure and function, hence alter carbon and water budgets of ecosystems. Studies of modelling combined with field experiments can provide essential information to investigate interactions between carbon and water cycles and climate. Here we present a first attempt to investigate the long-term climate controls on seasonal patterns and inter-annual variations in water and carbon exchanges in an arid-zone savanna-woodland ecosystem using a detailed mechanistic soil–plant–atmosphere model (SPA), driven by leaf area index (LAI) simulated by an ecohydrological model (WAVES) and observed climate data during 1981–2012. The SPA was tested against almost 3 years of eddy covariance flux measurements in terms of gross primary productivity (GPP) and evapotranspiration (ET). The model was able to explain 80 and 71% of the variability of observed daily GPP and ET, respectively. Long-term simulations showed that carbon accumulation rates and ET ranged from 20.6 g C m^?2 mon^?1 in the late dry season to 45.8 g C m^?2 mon^?1 in the late wet season, respectively, primarily driven by seasonal variations in LAI and soil moisture. Large climate variations resulted in large seasonal variation in ecosystem water-use efficiency (eWUE). Simulated annual GPP varied between 146.4 and 604.7 g C m^?2 y^?1. Variations in annual ET coincided with that of GPP, ranging from 110.2 to 625.8 mm y^?1. Annual variations in GPP and ET were driven by the annual variations in precipitation and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) but not temperature. The linear coupling of simulated annual GPP and ET resulted in eWUE having relatively small year-to-year variation.     

Do the energy fluxes and surface conductance of boreal coniferous forests in Europe scale with leaf area?

Earth observing systems are now routinely used to infer leaf area index (LAI) given its significance in spatial aggregation of land surface fluxes. Whether LAI is an appropriate scaling parameter for daytime growing season energy budget, surface conductance (G_s), water‐ and light‐use efficiency and surface–atmosphere coupling of European boreal coniferous forests was explored using eddy‐covariance (EC) energy and CO₂ fluxes. The observed scaling relations were then explained using a biophysical multilayer soil–vegetation–atmosphere transfer model as well as by a bulk G_s representation. The LAI variations significantly alter radiation regime, within‐canopy microclimate, sink/source distributions of CO₂, H₂O and heat, and forest floor fluxes. The contribution of forest floor to ecosystem‐scale energy exchange is shown to decrease asymptotically with increased LAI, as expected. Compared with other energy budget components, dry‐canopy evapotranspiration (ET) was reasonably ‘conservative’ over the studied LAI range 0.5–7.0 m² m^?2. Both ET and G_s experienced a minimum in the LAI range 1–2 m² m^?2 caused by opposing nonproportional response of stomatally controlled transpiration and ‘free’ forest floor evaporation to changes in canopy density. The young forests had strongest coupling with the atmosphere while stomatal control of energy partitioning was strongest in relatively sparse (LAI ~2 m² m^?2) pine stands growing on mineral soils. The data analysis and model results suggest that LAI may be an effective scaling parameter for net radiation and its partitioning but only in sparse stands (LAI <3 m² m^?2). This finding emphasizes the significance of stand‐replacing disturbances on the controls of surface energy exchange. In denser forests, any LAI dependency varies with physiological traits such as light‐saturated water‐use efficiency. The results suggest that incorporating species traits and site conditions are necessary when LAI is used in upscaling energy exchanges of boreal coniferous forests.     

21世纪以来黄土高原水分利用效率时空变化及归因

生态系统水分利用效率(WUE)是表征碳水耦合过程的关键指标,然而,有关气候变化和退耕还林还草工程背景下黄土高原WUE的时空变化特征及其主导因子仍未明晰。研究利用遥感驱动的生态系统过程模型BEPS模拟2001-2020年黄土高原总初级生产力(GPP)和蒸散(ET),并结合基于敏感性试验的多控制因子联立求解方法定量分析气候和植被因子对黄土高原WUE变化(WUE=GPP/ET)的贡献。结果表明:(1)2001-2020年黄土高原GPP和ET分别以12.9 gC m^-2 a^-1和3.7 mm/a速率显著升高,并使得WUE增长显著(0.021 gC mm^-1 m^-2 a^-1)。(2)2001-2020年间黄土高原80.12%的区域叶面积指数(LAI)显著升高(全区增速为0.014 m² m^-2 a^-1)而气候因子变化均不显著。(3)植被因子和气候因子对WUE变化分别呈正贡献和负贡献,植被因子作为主要影响因子主导了黄土高原86.74%地区的WUE变化。研究结果有望为干旱区生态水文管理和相关政策制定提供一定科学参考。     

The influence of native replanting on stream ecosystem metabolism in a degraded landscape: can a little vegetation go a long way?

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Whole-Stream Metabolism Responds to Spawning Pacific Salmon in Their Native and Introduced Ranges

Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) perform important ecological roles in stream ecosystems by provisioning nutrients as resource subsidies and modifying their physical habitat as ecosystem engineers. These contrasting roles result in concurrent nutrient enrichment and benthic disturbance, where local environmental characteristics potentially determine which effect predominates. Whole-stream metabolism quantifies the functional response to salmon and may identify patterns in enrichment and disturbance not apparent from structural measurements alone. We measured ecosystem respiration (ER) and gross primary production (GPP), along with chemical and physical characteristics, in seven Southeast Alaska streams and two Michigan streams, before and during the salmon run. These streams in the native and introduced ranges of salmon differed in environmental characteristics, from geomorphology at the reach scale to climate at the biome scale. Salmon consistently increased ER across streams and biomes, from an average (±SE) of 1.92 ± 0.23 g O₂ m^?2 d^?1 before salmon to 6.30 ± 1.08 g O₂ m^?2 d^?1 during the run. In the cobble-bottom streams of Southeast Alaska, GPP doubled from 0.29 ± 0.05 g O₂ m^?2 d^?1 before salmon to 0.66 ± 0.16 g O₂ m^?2 d^?1 during the run. In contrast, GPP responded inconsistently to salmon in the sand-bottom Michigan streams, increasing in one and decreasing in the other. Patterns in ER and GPP among streams and time periods were predicted by stream water nutrients (for example, ammonium, soluble reactive phosphorus) rather than by physical characteristics (for example, light, sediment size, and so on). This study demonstrates that salmon can periodically override physical controls on ER and GPP and enhance whole-stream metabolism via their dual ecological roles as both resource subsidies and ecosystem engineers.     

Fluctuating water levels control water chemistry and metabolism of a charophyte‐dominated pond

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