The salinity preference of members of the genus Macroplea (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Donaciinae), fully aquatic leaf beetles that occur in brackish water

Reed beetles (Donaciinae) of the genus Macroplea Samouelle, 1819 live permanently submerged. Literature indicates that Macroplea mutica occurs in brackish water, whereas Macroplea appendiculata is restricted to freshwater. The salinity preference of these two species was tested in a linear and a circular device that offered a continuous salinity gradient. The distribution of animals in the devices was monitored over at least 3 h in each of the 21 experiments. Both species preferred freshwater (salinity 0) over brackish water (salinity 10). In particular, this holds true for specimens collected in brackish water. Likewise, immediate reactions could be observed when during such experiments the direction of the gradient was reversed. While M. mutica can be regarded as a truly marine insect, this marine environment does not strictly reflect its fundamental niche with respect to salinity preference. This is in line with accumulating evidence that M. mutica can be found in freshwater habitats (and M. appendiculata in brackish water). This indicates that the species’ distribution might be influenced by other factors like host plant preference or dispersal mechanisms. It is discussed if—in spite of similar fundamental niches—differences in salinity tolerance (and hence performance in brackish water) may have contributed to speciation in the genus Macroplea.     

The second phantom aquatic leaf beetle in Japan: Macroplea mutica rediscovery in the wetlands (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Wetland biodiversity is currently declining on a global scale. Wetland biodiversity understanding is critical for determining the wetlands' conservation value. In this study, Macroplea Samouelle, 1819 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was discovered in Aomori Prefecture, Honshu Island, Japan. Only two Macroplea species have been recorded in Japan, M. japana (Jacoby, 1885) and M. mutica (Fabricius, 1792). Macroplea japana had been unrecorded for 60 years before being rediscovered in Honshu Island in 2022, and a single adult M. mutica female was discovered in Hokkaido Prefecture in 2003. The discovered individuals were concluded to be M. mutica based on morphological and molecular analyses. Although morphological differences were observed with the Eurasian M. mutica individuals, the male genitalia was nearly identical to M. mutica. For the molecular phylogenetic analysis based on COI and 28S sequences, Macroplea individuals in Japan were clustered with M. mutica on the Eurasian Continent. This is the first record of this species on Honshu Island (and the second in Japan), as well as the first record of adult males. This species would require conservation policies and additional distributional surveys.     

Sympatric occurrence of three leaf beetle species of Macroplea Samouelle, 1819 (Coleoptera,Chrysomelidae, Donaciinae) in Finland with a key to species in Northern Europe

Macroplea Samouelle, 1819 is the only known fully aquatic leaf beetle genus with three European species that have earlier been classified by their assumed water salinity preferences. We studied the inter- and intraspecific variation of the specimens living in Northern Europe using both molecular (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, COI) and morphological evidence. The variation in the COI sequences between M. mutica (Fabricius, 1792) and M. pubipennis (Reuter, 1875) was 8.4%–9%, M. mutica and M. appendiculata (Panzer, 1794) – 3.9%–4.9%, and M. appendiculata and M. pubipennis – 8.8%–9.2%. All three species were sampled together in the Bothnian Sea on the same water plants, showing that neither salinity nor plant species bear a decisive importance in their occurrence in the region. Phylogenetic results suggest the existence of two currently unknown Macroplea species that are evolutionarily close to M. appendiculata. A key to the Nordic species is provided.     

The effect of abrupt salinity change on oxygen consumption in crab megalopae of Chincoteague Bay,USA

Variability in salinity is an environmental stressor that crab megalopae encounter as they are carried by tides and currents throughout Chincoteague Bay. We exposed blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) and fiddler crab (Uca spp.) megalopae to abrupt salinity changes from 10 to 31 ppt and measured their oxygen usage. It was hypothesized that the megalopae would cope with the changes in a manner reflective of the documented abilities and tolerances of adult crabs. It was also hypothesized that lower salinities would have a particularly detrimental effect on the megalopae reflected by both increased oxygen usage and mortality. The megalopae of both species did exhibit an increase in oxygen use at lower salinities, although the effect was more pronounced during the initial transition and decreased during acclimation. The megalopae mirrored the adult responses, with blue crab larvae consuming more oxygen per mg of wet weight at lower salinities, whereas fiddler crab larval oxygen consumption was relatively uniform at all salinities. Mortality of some blue crab postlarvae was observed at 10 ppt while all larval fiddler crabs survived. Coupled with the introduction of additional fresh water into the global water system, these results indicate that further investigation into this subject is necessary.     

Reduced salinities compromise the thermal tolerance of hypersaline specialist diving beetles

Inland saline waters are globally threatened habitats that harbour unique assemblages of specialist invertebrates. In many Mediterranean regions, irrigation associated with intensive agriculture is lowering the salinity of these habitats, resulting in the loss of their specialist biota, although the mechanisms by which reductions in salinity lead to species loss are poorly understood. In the present study, the effects of reduced salinity on the temperature tolerance and thermal acclimatory abilities of two related species of hypersaline water beetles, Nebrioporus baeticus (Schaum) and Nebrioporus ceresyi (Aubé), are explored. Both upper (UTL) and lower thermal limits (LTL) are assessed, and both salinity and temperature are found to influence the thermal biology of Nebrioporus. Mean UTLs are greater in individuals of both species acclimated at high salinities, with salinity appearing to be more important than acclimation temperature in determining UTL. In both taxa, the lowest mean LTLs are recorded in individuals acclimated at the highest salinities and lowest temperatures; temperature‐dependent acclimation is only reported after exposure to relatively high salinities. The data show that salinity influences the thermal tolerance and acclimatory ability of these hypersaline beetles, and that lowered salinity compromises the ability of adult Nebrioporus to cope with both heat and cold. Such an effect may partly explain why specialist species are lost from hypersaline habitats subject to salinity reductions, and suggests that ongoing reduction in salinity may compromise the ability of such specialist taxa to cope with rapid climate change.     

Effect of salinity on oxygen consumption in fishes: a review

The effect of salinity on resting oxygen uptake was measured in the perch Perca fluviatilis and available information on oxygen uptake in teleost species at a variety of salinities was reviewed. Trans‐epithelial ion transport against a concentration gradient requires energy and exposure to salinities osmotically different from the body fluids therefore imposes an energetic demand that is expected to be lowest in brackish water compared to fresh and sea water. Across species, there is no clear trend between oxygen uptake and salinity, and estimates of cost of osmotic and ionic regulation vary from a few per cent to >30% of standard metabolism.     

The effects of different temperature and salinity levels on the acute toxicity of zinc in the Pink Shrimp (Farfantepenaeus paulensis)

The purpose of this study was to measure the acute toxicity of zinc (Zn) on Farfantepenaeus paulensis at different salinities and temperatures by monitoring oxygen consumption. This aspect of the effect of zinc has not been studied in this important commercial species before. First, we examined the acute toxicity of zinc in F. paulensis at 24, 48, 72, and 96?h medium lethal concentration (LC₅₀). One hundred and fifty shrimp were employed for the routine metabolism measurement utilizing sealed respirometers. Ten shrimp were subjected to oxygen consumption measurements in one of the four concentrations of zinc (control, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 mg?L^?1) at three salinities (36, 20, and 5) and three temperatures (25°C, 20°C, and 15°C). Zinc was significantly more toxic at a salinity of 5 than at 20 or 36. The oxygen consumption was estimated through experiments performed on each of the 12 possible combinations of three temperatures (25°C, 20°C, and 15°C) and three salinities (36, 20, and 5). The shrimp showed a significant reduction in oxygen consumption at a salinity of 5. The results show that the oxygen consumption decreases with respect to the zinc concentration in all temperatures studied. At the highest zinc concentration employed (3.0?mg?L^?1), the salinity 5 and the temperature at 25°C, oxygen consumption decreases 60.92% in relation to the control. The results show that zinc is more toxic to F. paulensis at lower salinities. The significance of the findings for the biology of the species close to sources of zinc is discussed.     

Influence of salinity on the rates of oxygen consumption in two species of freshwater fishes,Phoxinus erythrogaster (family Cyprinidae), and Fundulus catenatus (family Fundulidae)

A dye process in a textile plant in southern Kentucky (USA) produces large quantities of saline waste-water which eventually enter Lake Cumberland via a municipal sewage treatment plant on Lily Creek. The impact of hypersaline conditions on two fish species native to the Cumberland River drainage system, redbelly dace (Phoxinus erythrogaster) and northern studfish (Fundulus catenatus), was assessed. These species were subjected to salinities of 0, 4, and 10 after which routine oxygen consumtpion values were determined. Significant correlations of salinity with oxygen consumption were demonstrated for both species with P. erythrogaster showing greater overall impact of salinity on metabolic rate.     

Contributions to the knowledge of the leaf beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) of Russia

A new species, Macroplea skomorokhovi sp. n., is described from the Russian Far East, and a key to species of the genus Macroplea Curtis is given. Cryptocephalus oxysternus Jacobson (Primorskii Territory) and Longitarsus truncatellus Weise (northern Caucasus) are recorded for the Russian fauna for the first time.     

Effects of salinity on the respiration and heart rate of the common mussel, Mytilus edulis L., and the black chiton, Katherina tunicata (Wood)

The rate of oxygen consumption of stepwise acclimated Mytilus edulis L. increased linearly from 30 to 10‰ salinity (S) while that of Katherina tunicata (Wood) was not significantly different between 10 and 30‰ S. Heart rate was 21–22 and 17–18 beats m^?1 in Mytilus edulis and Katherina tunicata, respectively, and no difference was found in the heart rate of either species acclimated stepwise to 10, 20 or 30‰ S. The average oxygen consumption rate of Mytilus edulis exposed to 12 h, 30-10-30 and 10-30-10‰ S cycles of fluctuating salinity was significantly lower than the respective control rate: there was a similar response during the 30-10-30‰ S cycle in Katherina tunicata. The respiration rate of Mytilus edulis and Katherina tunicata declined as salinity deviated from the control salinity and increased as salinity returned to the control salinity. The rate of oxygen consumption by K. tunicata varied directly with the ambient salinity during the 10-30-10‰ S cycle. The average heart rate of Mytilus edulis was significantly lower during cyclic changes in salinity than at the respective control salinities; a similar relationship existed for Katherina tunicata during the 10-30-10‰ S cycle. Heart rate of Mytilus edulis varied in a parallel manner with oxygen consumption during both cycles. Katherina tunicata heart rate was relatively constant and could not be fitted to a regression line during the 10-30-10‰ S cycle. The normalized heart rate increased to 113% of control at 10‰ S of the 30-10-30‰ S cycle and returned to the control rate by 12 h. The oxygen consumption and heart rate of these two species are not directly coupled to regulation of water volume because different responses are observed with respect to salinity although there is poor water volume regulation in both species.     

低盐对菊黄东方鲀幼鱼生长、存活、耗氧、鳃Na /K -ATP酶以及肝抗氧化酶的影响

通过探讨低盐(盐度为0、1.7、5、10、15和20)对菊黄东方鲀(Takifugu flavidus)幼鱼生长、存活、耗氧、鳃Na+/K+-ATP酶以及肝抗氧化酶的影响,研究了菊黄东方鲀幼鱼对低盐的适应性。结果显示,菊黄东方鲀幼鱼在盐度0组实验3周后全部死亡;盐度1.7组实验6周幼鱼大量死亡,最后成活率相当低,仅17.33%;盐度5、10、15和20组的幼鱼在整个实验中没有出现死亡现象。全长特定生长率在盐度1.7~20组之间没有显著差异。体重特定生长率,1.7盐度组比其他盐度组显著低(P0.05),5~20盐度组之间没有显著差异(P0.05)。最高的全长特定生长率和最高的体重特定生长率均出现在10盐度组。前6周的饵料系数在盐度1.7~20组之间没有显著差异,但最高(1.27)和最低(1.17)的饵料系数分别出现在1.7和10盐度组,总饵料系数在5~20盐度组之间没有显著差异。幼鱼的耗氧率在5~20盐度组之间没有显著差异,但最低的耗氧率出现在10盐度组。最低的鳃Na+/K+-ATP酶(NKA)活性出现在10盐度组,5~20盐度与NKA活性的关系可以用二次函数来拟合(y=0.083 2 x2﹣2.125 2 x+20.915,r2=0.977 9),由此得到理论上最低NKA活性值出现在盐度12.77。肝超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-PX)活性在盐度1.7~20组之间均无显著差异,而10和15盐度组的过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性比1.7和20盐度组的显著低(P0.05),1.7~20盐度与CAT活性关系可以用二次函数来拟合(y=0.257 7 x2﹣5.807 6 x+87.357,r2=0.877 1),由此得到理论上最低CAT活性值出现在盐度11.27。研究结果表明,盐度1.7是菊黄东方鲀幼鱼的生存极限低盐,盐度5以上已经能适合其存活和生长,盐度10~15是的菊黄东方鲀幼鱼的最适宜盐度范围,适当降低盐度对菊黄东方鲀幼鱼的养殖生产是有利的。建议菊黄东方鲀幼鱼养殖盐度至少在5以上,最好在10~15范围。     

On the taxonomy and distribution of the leaf-beetle <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macroplea japana</Emphasis> Jacoby, 1885 (Coleoptera,Chrysomelidae)

The species rank of Macroplea japana (Jacoby, 1885) is confirmed based on examination of the holotype. The main characters distinguishing this species from M. mutica are as following: the 4th antennomere is as long as the 3rd segment and somewhat longer than the 2nd segment; the pronotum is smooth, shining, with 3 black longitudinal stripes on the bottoms of 3 longitudinal impressions; the femora and tibiae black apically; the 1st metatarsomere is as long as the 2nd and the 3rd tarsomeres combined and is almost twice as long as the 2nd tarsomere; the claws bear no triangular projection near the bases; the aedeagus forms a shorter apical projection. Macroplea japana is found in Russia (Primorskii Territory) for the first time.     

Effects of salinity and feeding on arm regeneration in the starfish Luidia clathrata (Say, 1825) (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)

The aim of this study was to determine: (1) salinity that maximizes arm regeneration in the starfish Luidia clathrata; and (2) if low food consumption or low salinity is the cause of the reduced rate of arm regeneration seen at low salinities.. An estimated salinity of 33 g kg^?1 produced maximum regeneration of two arms in L. clathrata. This salinity is typically greater than that found in bays that are the usual habitat for the species. Equivalent food consumption by L. clathrata in salinities of 20 g kg^?1 and 30 g kg^?1 resulted in greater regeneration in salinity of 30 g kg^?1, suggesting lower food consumption at low salinities is not the primary reason for lower regeneration. Higher food consumption compared to lower food consumption, both tested in salinity of 30 g kg^?1, did not increase regeneration, but resulted in more storage of energy in the pyloric caeca.     

Effects of salinity and temperature on oxygen consumption in a freshwater population of Palaemonetes antennarius (Crustacea,decapoda)

• 1.1. After step-like increases in salinity the shrimps exhibit the smallest increase in oxygen consumption in the lower salinity range. At higher salinities the shrimps show longer recovery times and greater increases in the metabolic rate after salinity shock.
• 2.2. In steady-state experiments, the shrimps display the lowest oxygen consumption rates near the isosmotic point. The lowest metabolic rates occur at salinities of 3‰ and 10‰ At salinities of 20‰ and above the rate of metabolism increases by 20–30%.
• 3.3. The calculated osmoregulatory work for animals in fresh water amounts to only 2.7% of routine metabolism and drops to 1.1% for shrimps in 3‰ and 0.7% in 5‰ salinity.
• 4.4. Locomotory activity in the form of position change was not responsible for the increased oxygen consumption of the animals after salinity shocks. A “tentative swimming activity” by fast and frequent beating of the pleopods without position change may be an important factor in the increase of metabolic rates.
• 5.5. In its temperature response, the brackish water population has a higher metabolic rate than the freshwater one. Between 5 and 35°C Q ₁₀-values range from 4.01 to 1.37.

     

Influence of Salinity Concentration on Aquatic Insect Community Structure: A Mesocosm Experiment in the Dead Sea Basin Region

Salinity varies considerably among temporary pools in the Dead Sea Basin, Israel. We experimentally assessed the effects of four salinity levels (0, 10, 20 and 30 g NaCl per liter) on the aquatic insect community in this basin in an artificial pool experiment. Each salinity level was randomly assigned to six pools (total=24 pools). Salinity did not affect total insect abundance but strongly affected abundance and distributions of different species, and consequently, community structure. Of 13 taxa colonizing the pools, 12 were Diptera including 10 mosquito species. Five taxa were sufficiently common to assess abundance in relation to salinity. Polypedilum nubiferum Skuse (Diptera: Chironomidae) was largely salinity intolerant being abundant only in the freshwater. Ephydra flavipes Macquart (Diptera: Ephydridae) was most abundant at the highest salinity level and was rare in freshwater. Ochlerotatus caspius Pallas (Diptera: Culicidae) abundance tended to be highest at 10 g/l and lowest at 30 g/l although the differences were not statistically significant. Anopheles multicolor Cambouliu (Diptera: Culicidae) was relatively euryhaline although numbers dropped significantly at the highest salinity. Cleon dipterum Linnaeus (Baetidae: Ephemeroptera) was also euryhaline and showed no significant differences in abundance across salinities. For the mosquito species, we also estimated survival to pupation. Survival to pupation was significantly lower for O. caspius in freshwater, but was not statistically significantly different across salinities for A.␣multicolor. Species diversity was highest at the two lowest salinities tested and then dropped with increasing salinity. Evenness was not significantly different across salinities. Community similarity generally decreased with increasing salinity differences though dissimilarity was greatest when comparing freshwater to other salinities. Thus, regional diversity is likely increased when there is a range of salinities among pools.     

Diversity of juvenile fish assemblages in the pelagic waters of Lebanon (eastern Mediterranean)

Oxygen consumption rates of nauplii of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana Kellogg 1906 were determined over a range of salinities from 10 to 110 ppm, in temperatures from 0 to 30°C, using a multi-factorial design. The oxygen micro-sensors employed have a fast response time and are capable of accurately measuring oxygen concentrations at temperatures well below 0°C. Oxygen uptake rate ranged from 0.03 to 0.66 μmol O₂ mg⁻¹ h⁻¹ and was sensitive to changes in both salinity and temperature. Temperature was the dominant factor affecting oxygen consumption rates, which showed a significant increase with increasing temperature. A slight decrease was measured in oxygen consumption with increasing salinity related to differential solubility of oxygen in waters of different salinities. Thermal sensitivity of oxygen consumption determined from calculations of Q ₁₀, indicated physiological adaptation of Artemia nauplii to the ranges of temperatures tested. Handling editor: A. van Kerchove     

Effects of Low Salinity on Adult Behavior and Larval Performance in the Intertidal Gastropod Crepipatella peruviana (Calyptraeidae)

Shallow-water coastal areas suffer frequent reductions in salinity due to heavy rains, potentially stressing the organisms found there, particularly the early stages of development (including pelagic larvae). Individual adults and newly hatched larvae of the gastropod Crepipatella peruviana were exposed to different levels of salinity stress (32(control), 25, 20 or 15), to quantify the immediate effects of exposure to low salinities on adult and larval behavior and on the physiological performance of the larvae. For adults we recorded the threshold salinity that initiates brood chamber isolation. For larvae, we measured the impact of reduced salinity on velar surface area, velum activity, swimming velocity, clearance rate (CR), oxygen consumption (OCR), and mortality (LC50); we also documented the impact of salinity discontinuities on the vertical distribution of veliger larvae in the water column. The results indicate that adults will completely isolate themselves from the external environment by clamping firmly against the substrate at salinities ≤24. Moreover, the newly hatched larvae showed increased mortality at lower salinities, while survivors showed decreased velum activity, decreased exposed velum surface area, and decreased mean swimming velocity. The clearance rates and oxygen consumption rates of stressed larvae were significantly lower than those of control individuals. Finally, salinity discontinuities affected the vertical distribution of larvae in the water column. Although adults can protect their embryos from low salinity stress until hatching, salinities <24 clearly affect survival, physiology and behavior in early larval life, which will substantially affect the fitness of the species under declining ambient salinities.     

The effects of temperature and salinity on ventilation behavior of two species of ghost shrimp (Thalassinidea) from the northern Gulf of Mexico: a laboratory study

Thalassinidean shrimp are among the most important bioturbators in coastal ecosystems. The species Lepidophthalmus louisianensis and Callichirus islagrande are found in dense aggregations (up to 400 burrows m⁻²) along sandy and muddy shores of the northern Gulf of Mexico. These shrimp actively ventilate their burrows to provide oxygen and eliminate wastes. In doing so, they expel nutrient-rich burrow water to the overlying water column, potentially altering nutrient cycling and benthic primary productivity. To develop a mechanistic understanding of the role of burrowing shrimp in nutrient processes, we must first examine how changes in environmental conditions alter the frequency, strength, and duration of ventilation. Field measurements of burrow temperature and salinity suggest that the burrow serves as a buffer from the highly variable conditions found in these estuarine, intertidal habitats. Temperatures at sediment depths >30 cm were generally warmer in winter and cooler in summer than at the sediment surface. Burrow salinities, measured at low tide, were consistently higher than adjacent open water. We used these measurements to parameterize laboratory studies of burrow ventilation in artificial burrows made of plastic tubing and in more natural sediment mesocosms, and studies of oxygen consumption in small glass containers. Rates of oxygen consumption and burrow ventilation by L. louisianensis were lower than those of C. islagrande, perhaps reflecting a lower overall activity rate in the former species which resides in less permeable sediments. Generally, increased temperature had a significant positive effect on oxygen consumption for both species. Salinity had no effect on oxygen consumption by L. louisianensis, reflecting the ability of this species to exist in a wide range of salinities. In contrast, oxygen consumption rates of C. islagrande, which is less tolerant of low salinity, were significantly higher at 35‰ than at 20‰. Ventilation rates were highly variable, and shrimp in artificial burrows tended to have consistently higher ventilation rates than those in sediment mesocosms. There is a trend toward more frequent ventilation at 30 °C for both species. Salinity had no effect on ventilation for either species. Our results suggest that thalassinideans exhibit highly variable and species-specific ventilation patterns that are more likely to be affected by temperature than salinity. Increased ventilation at higher temperatures seems to coincide with increased oxygen consumption at these temperatures, although a similar finding was not made for salinity treatments.     

Activity and respiration in the anemone, Metridium senile (L.) exposed to salinity fluctuations

Activity and respiration in the anemone, Metridium senile (L.), were monitored under both constant and fluctuating salinity conditions. During constant exposure to 50% sea water it was found that the animals retracted the tentacles and that the rate of oxygen consumption decreased by ≈50%. The same response was elicited from animals in 100% sea water in a contracted state. Animals exposed to continually fluctuating salinities were found to retract the tentacles, contract the body wall, and produce amounts of mucus during periods of decreasing salinities. These reactions were reversed during exposure to increasing salinity. Oxygen consumption never ceased entirely in animals exposed to dilute sea water and it was found that during declining oxygen tension M. senile regulated its oxygen consumption until the environmental oxygen tension fell to ≈30% saturation.     

Effects of low salinity on juvenile pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus paulensis (Perez-Farfante 1967, Crustacea)

It is of paramount importance to study salinity tolerance of commercially important crustaceans, such as the pink shrimp Farfantepenaeus paulensis to determine possible mortality causes in the wild and in aquaculture in oligohaline waters. The aim of this study was to determine the lethal salinity concentration (LC50) for juvenile pink shrimp F. paulensis and measure its oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion at different salinity levels. Shrimp of two length classes (49.4?±?4.3 and 78.5?±?5.5?mm) were placed in 10-L containers and exposed to salinity levels of 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10 and 5. The experiments were tripled, with seven shrimp in each container. The average lethal concentration (LC50s) for an exposure of 24?h was 13.33 (11.26–15.78) and 10.26 (8.60–12.64), respectively, for the two classes of juveniles. For an exposure of 48?h, LC50s were 12.71 (10.68–15.12) for the larger animals and 9.20 (7.34–11.52) for the smaller ones. There was an inverse relationship between salinity and rates of oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion. The average reduction in specific oxygen consumption in salinities 20, 25 and 30 showed a decrease in metabolic rate of 63, 80 and 82%, respectively, in relation to salinity level 0. The same occurred for the averages of ammonia excretion at salinity levels of 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35, which represented low metabolic rates of 57, 61, 70, 71 and 74% respectably in relation to salinity level 0.