The diversity of insectivorous bat assemblages among habitats within a subtropical urban landscape

We investigated the bat (Microchiroptera) diversity of four major habitat types within a large Australian subtropical city (Brisbane, Australia) to determine whether species richness was affected by habitat changes associated with urbanization, as suggested from studies elsewhere. Forty sites, ten in each habitat type (remnant bushland, parkland, low‐density residential and high‐density residential) were surveyed using acoustic bat detectors on six non‐consecutive occasions. Fourteen bat species were recorded. The species accumulation curve of the entire Brisbane bat assemblage reached a plateau at 14 species. The total numbers of species in bushland, parkland, low‐density residential and high‐density residential habitats were 14, 13, 14 and 11 species, respectively. Asymptotic estimates of species richness for each habitat were close or equal to these totals. Mean asymptotic estimated species richness differed significantly among habitats, being lowest in high‐density residential sites and highest in low‐density residential sites. Evenness profiles were similar across habitats, and were not strongly dominated by a few species. Partitioning of diversity components showed that landscape (γ) diversity was mainly determined by the high species richness of low‐density residential and bushland habitats (α diversity), rather than high beta (β) diversity among habitats. These findings contradict those of other studies on bat diversity in which species richness was highest within ‘natural’ areas of the urban landscape and assemblages were dominated by one or two species. This highlights the need for caution in making generalizations based on existing information, which is dominated by studies in temperate regions.     

Assessing the role of invasive weeds in the impact of successional habitats on the bird assemblage in overgrowing agriculture

Agricultural habitats are assumed to be biodiversity refuges. However, some studies treat agricultural land management as a cause of the biodiversity decline, to which habitat loss and heterogeneity may contribute. Between the crops, the successional habitats appear – ruderal plant communities and bush areas. Their influence on farmland biodiversity is unknown. This research assessed the impact of spatial relationships between agricultural areas, semi-natural meadows and successional habitats on the bird species richness, Shannon diversity index, and Faith’s phylogenetic diversity index. An additional habitat variable was the presence of weeds, i.e., invasive Caucasian hogweeds Heracleum sp., treated as crops in the past. The birds and habitats research was on 74 sites set in pairs (invaded vs control) in south-eastern Poland. Results showed that birds assembling in agricultural and semi-natural areas were more diverse and contained protected farmland species, while birds appearing in overgrown habitats (i.e., successional and invaded) were clumped with their habitat requirements. In the presence of plant invaders, ruderal habitats negatively affected the bird phylogenetic diversity index. In invaded sites, bush areas had no positive effects on the Shannon diversity index and species richness of birds, in contrast with control sites. The presented research suggests the need to re-evaluate the importance of successional non-crop habitats considered positive in agricultural landscapes if those habitats develop in areas with plant invasion.     

Patterns of land snail diversity over a gradient of habitat degradation: a comparison of three Czech cities

Terrestrial snail faunas were studied at 273 sites in three large Czech cities (Prague, Pilsen and Hradec Králové). The aim was to explore the effect of habitat degradation on land snail diversity in urban environments. Of the 81 species recorded, 12 were considered synanthropic and 29 anthropophobic. We assessed the power of habitat degradation and distance from the city centre as predictors of species richness for: (1) all species combined; (2) synanthropic species alone; and (3) anthropophobic alone. The highest correlation was observed between richness of athropophobic species and habitat degradation (average r = −0.69, P < 0.001), which explained on average 48% of the variation, whereas distance from the city centre explained a negligible amount of independent variation. A similar pattern was found for all species combined; however, the amount of explained variation was lower (10% on average). We found a contrasting pattern for the richness of synanthropic species whose occurrence was mainly and negatively driven by the distance from the city centre. However, the amount of explained variation was very unequal among the cities, being very low in Prague and Pilsen (8%) and quite high in Hradec Králové (36%). In conclusion, the response of local snail assemblages along a gradient of habitat degradation can be generalised as a gradual decline in species richness, especially of rare and anthropophobic species. This reduction was independent of the sites’ position within the city, which highlights the importance of natural habitats for the maintenance of snail diversity in urban environments.     

The distribution and habitat associations of non‐native plant species in urban riparian habitats

Questions: 1. What are the distribution and habitat associations of non‐native (neophyte) species in riparian zones? 2. Are there significant differences, in terms of plant species diversity, composition, habitat condition and species attributes, between plant communities where non‐natives are present or abundant and those where non‐natives are absent or infrequent? 3. Are the observed differences generic to non‐natives or do individual non‐native species differ in their vegetation associations? Location: West Midlands Conurbation (WMC), UK. Methods: 56 sites were located randomly on four rivers across the WMC. Ten 2 m × 2 m quadrats were placed within 15 m of the river to sample vegetation within the floodplain at each site. All vascular plants were recorded along with site information such as surrounding land use and habitat types. Results: Non‐native species were found in many vegetation types and on all rivers in the WMC. There were higher numbers of non‐natives on more degraded, human‐modified rivers. More non‐native species were found in woodland, scrub and tall herb habitats than in grasslands. We distinguish two types of communities with non‐natives. In communities colonized following disturbance, in comparison to quadrats containing no non‐native species, those with non‐natives had higher species diversity and more forbs, annuals and shortlived monocarpic perennials. Native species in quadrats containing non‐natives were characteristic of conditions of higher fertility and pH, had a larger specific leaf area and were less stress tolerant or competitive. In later successional communities dominated by particular non‐natives, native diversity declined with increasing cover of non‐natives. Associated native species were characteristic of low light conditions. Conclusions: Communities containing non‐natives can be associated with particular types of native species. Extrinsic factors (disturbance, eutrophication) affected both native and non‐native species. In disturbed riparian habitats the key determinant of diversity is dominance by competitive invasive species regardless of their native or non‐native origin.     

Plant functional group composition and large‐scale species richness in European agricultural landscapes

Question: Which are the plant functional groups responding most clearly to agricultural disturbances? Which are the relative roles of habitat availability, landscape configuration and agricultural land use intensity in affecting the functional composition and diversity of vascular plants in agricultural landscapes? Location: 25 agricultural landscape areas in seven European countries. Methods: We examined the plant species richness and abundance in 4 km × 4 km landscape study sites. The plant functional group classification was derived from the BIOLFLOR database. Factorial decomposition of functional groups was applied. Results: Natural habitat availability and low land use intensity supported the abundance and richness of perennials, sedges, pteridophytes and high nature quality indicator species. The abundance of clonal species, C and S strategists was also correlated with habitat area. An increasing density of field edges explained a decrease in richness of high nature quality species and an increase in richness of annual graminoids. Intensive agriculture enhanced the richness of annuals and low nature quality species. Conclusions: Habitat patch availability and habitat quality are the main drivers of functional group composition and plant species richness in European agricultural landscapes. Linear elements do not compensate for the loss of habitats, as they mostly support disturbance tolerant generalist species. In order to conserve vascular plant species diversity in agricultural landscapes, the protection and enlargement of existing patches of (semi‐) natural habitats appears to be more effective than relying on the rescue effect of linear elements. This should be done in combination with appropriate agricultural management techniques to limit the effect of agrochemicals to the fields.     

上海居住区植物多样性的均质化

居住区植被是我国城市植被的重要组成体,其多样性的分布格局将影响城市植被的多样性.通过对上海市中心、市郊和郊县居住区的植被调查,比较了城乡梯度上居住区绿化观赏植物、杂草和自生逃逸植物的多样性和物种组成.结果表明：城乡梯度上,绿化观赏植物和杂草的丰富度不存在显著差异,而市郊自生逃逸植物的丰富度最高;不同城乡梯度居住区中,绿化观赏植物、杂草和自生逃逸植物的物种组成相似,其中40％～50％的物种为共有种.上海城镇居住区植物均质化的主要原因是几近雷同的居住区建造风格和绿化形式,制约了绿化植物的使用和异质生境的营造.     

Urban domestic gardens (I): Putting small‐scale plant diversity in context

Abstract. As part of a larger survey of biodiversity in gardens in Sheffield, UK, we examined the composition and diversity of the flora in two 1‐m² quadrats in each of 60 gardens, and compared this with floristic data from semi‐natural habitats in central England and derelict urban land in Birmingham, UK. Garden quadrats contained more than twice as many taxa as those from any other habitat type. Ca. 33 % of garden plants were natives and 67 % aliens, mainly from Europe and Asia. A higher proportion of garden aliens originated from Asia and New Zealand than in the UK alien flora as a whole; 18 of the 20 most frequent plants in garden quadrats were natives, mostly common weeds. Garden quadrats showed no evidence of ‘nestedness’, i.e. a tendency for scarce species to be confined to the highest diversity quadrats. Conversely, species in all semi‐natural and derelict land data sets were significantly nested. Compared to a range of semi‐natural habitats, species richness of garden quadrats was intermediate, and strikingly similar to the richness of derelict land quadrats. Although species accumulation curves for all other habitats showed signs of saturation at 120 quadrats, gardens did not. Correlations between Sørensen similarity index and physical distance were insignificant for all habitat types, i.e. there was little evidence that physical distance played any part in structuring the composition of the quadrats in any of the data sets. However, garden quadrats were much less similar to each other than quadrats from semi‐natural habitats or derelict land.     

Impacts of Land Abandonment on Vegetation: Successional Pathways in European Habitats

Changes in traditional agricultural systems in Europe in recent decades have led to widespread abandonment and colonization of various habitats by shrubs and trees. We combined several vegetation databases to test whether patterns of changes in plant diversity after land abandonment in different habitats followed similar pathways. The impacts of land abandonment and subsequent woody colonization on vegetation composition and plant traits were studied in five semi-natural open habitats and two arable habitats in six regions of Europe. For each habitat, vegetation surveys were carried out in different stages of succession using either permanent or non-permanent plots. Consecutive stages of succession were defined on a physiognomic basis from initial open stages to late woody stages. Changes in vegetation composition, species richness, numbers of species on Red Lists, plant strategy types, Ellenberg indicator values of the vegetation, Grime CSR strategy types and seven ecological traits were assessed for each stage of the successional pathway. Abandonment of agro-pastoral land-use and subsequent woody colonization were associated with changes in floristic composition. Plant richness varied according to the different habitats and stages of succession, but semi-natural habitats differed from arable fields in several ecological traits and vegetation responses. Nevertheless, succession occurred along broadly predictable pathways. Vegetation in abandoned arable fields was characterized by a decreasing importance of R-strategists, annuals, seed plants with overwintering green leaves, insect-pollinated plants with hemi-rosette morphology and plants thriving in nutrient-rich conditions, but an increase in species considered as endangered according to the Red Lists. Conversely, changes in plant traits with succession within the initially-open semi-natural habitats showed an increase in plants thriving in nutrient-rich conditions, stress-tolerant plants and plants with sexual and vegetative reproduction, but a sharp decrease in protected species. In conclusion, our study showed a set of similarities in responses of the vegetation in plant traits after land abandonment, but we also highlighted differences between arable fields and semi-natural habitats, emphasizing the importance of land-use legacy.     

Island biogeography of temporary wetland carabid beetle communities

Aim The study tests if island biogeography is applicable to invertebrate communities of habitat islands in the agricultural landscape that are not fragments of formerly larger habitats. Location Thirty temporary wetlands in the agricultural landscape of northeast Germany. Methods The composition and species richness of carabid beetle communities was analysed. Habitat area, isolation, the density of temporary wetlands in the landscape, land‐use intensity and the maximum duration of flooding were recorded as independent variables. Overall species richness and wetland species richness were studied in independent regression analyses. The community composition was analysed by means of a Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). A partial CCA was used to analyse the effect of the distance to the edge of the field after removing impacts of other independent variables. Results The area of the habitats and various measures of isolation (mean distances = 81–240 m) did not influence species richness or wetland species richness. The community composition was mainly determined by the land‐use intensity, habitat area did not have significant effects, and the distance to the edge of the field was the only effective isolation parameter. Short‐winged species were more often affected by the distance to the edge of the field than full‐winged species. Main conclusion There is evidence that the distances between the wetlands do not provide an effective barrier to the species dispersal and, therefore, metapopulation structures including subpopulations of multiple temporary wetlands might counteract local area effects on subpopulations. Short‐winged species, however, might be more affected by isolation than full‐winged species. As carabid beetle community structure in most early successional habitats is similar, these results may be representative of many agricultural landscape habitats. Nature conservancy concepts that aim to increase habitat area and habitat connectivity have successfully been applied to fragmented late‐successional habitats. The present study indicates that such concepts do not necessarily result in higher diversity or larger populations in early successional habitats.     

Response of medium‐ and large‐sized terrestrial fauna to corridor restoration along the middle Sacramento River

A fundamental challenge in restoration ecology is to understand when species are expected to colonize newly created habitat. Determining this is important for assessing progress toward restoration goals and, more generally, for gaining insight into ecosystem functioning and dynamics. We studied this question as it relates to mid‐ to large‐sized terrestrial fauna in restored riparian habitats at the Sacramento River National Wildlife Refuge, in northern California. We used camera traps to document use of 16 riparian corridor sites of varying restoration age. Comparisons of species richness (diversity) and visitation frequency (activity) were made across different‐aged sites. We found that predator diversity and activity levels tended to be higher in restored forests than in remnant forests, and that they tended to be highest in young restored forests. This trend persisted when data from variable sampling periods were pooled, although significant differences occurred more often in wet and cold sampling periods. The trend did not always hold for the animal community at large (consisting of both predator and non‐predator species). We conclude that restoration age affects predator diversity and activity levels in restored and remnant floodplain forests, and that predator communities can establish soon after restoration. Our results suggest that restoring natural river processes that promote habitat regeneration may benefit mid‐ to large‐sized terrestrial predators that appear to mostly use early successional habitat.     

Native and alien floras in urban habitats: a comparison across 32 cities of central Europe

Aim To determine relative effects of habitat type, climate and spatial pattern on species richness and composition of native and alien plant assemblages in central European cities. Location Central Europe, Belgium and the Netherlands. Methods The diversity of native and alien flora was analysed in 32 cities. In each city, plant species were recorded in seven 1‐ha plots that represented seven urban habitat types with specific disturbance regimes. Plants were classified into native species, archaeophytes (introduced before ad 1500) and neophytes (introduced later). Two sets of explanatory variables were obtained for each city: climatic data and all‐scale spatial variables generated by analysis of principal coordinates of neighbour matrices. For each group of species, the effect of habitat type, climate and spatial variables on variation in species composition was determined by variation partitioning. Responses of individual plant species to climatic variables were tested using a set of binomial regression models. Effects of climatic variables on the proportion of alien species were determined by linear regression. Results In all cities, 562 native plant species, 188 archaeophytes and 386 neophytes were recorded. Proportions of alien species varied among urban habitats. The proportion of native species decreased with increasing range and mean annual temperature, and increased with increasing precipitation. In contrast, proportions of archaeophytes and neophytes increased with mean annual temperature. However, spatial pattern explained a larger proportion of variation in species composition of the urban flora than climate. Archaeophytes were more uniformly distributed across the studied cities than the native species and neophytes. Urban habitats rich in native species also tended to be rich in archaeophytes and neophytes. Main conclusions Species richness and composition of central European urban floras are significantly affected by urban habitat types, climate and spatial pattern. Native species, archaeophytes and neophytes differ in their response to these factors.     

Effect of agricultural land‐use change on the structure of a temperate forest ant–plant interaction network

Studies on the responses of ant–plant interactions to land‐use change have mainly focused on tropical habitats, usually without considering the impacts on the structure of interaction networks. Here we show that land‐use modifies the structure of the ant–plant interaction networks in a temperate habitat. Ant–plant interactions and plant diversity were recorded in an oak forest and agricultural land in central Mexico. We registered five ant species in the oak forest, and four ant species in the agricultural land. Plant diversity was higher in the agricultural land than in the oak forest. In the ant–plant networks of both sites, our results showed a higher dependence of ants on the plants on which they feed than vice versa, and the ants Formica spp. and the plants Barkleyanthus salicifolius were the species with the most strength and greatest influence in the network structure. The ant–plant network in the oak forest showed a nested structure. However, the network at the agricultural land site showed non‐nestedness; the identity of both ants and plants with the highest values of specialization was different and the number of ant species in the network was decreased, but the number of plant species with which they interacted significantly increased. Both ant–plant networks were equally tolerant to simulated extinction of individual species. We conclude that temperate forest ant–plant networks can be inherently fragile and susceptible to the effects of agricultural land‐use change, not on the number of interacting species but on their identity.     

Exceptionally poor land snail fauna of central Yakutia (NE Russia): climatic and habitat determinants of species richness

There is an ongoing debate on the causes of the latitudinal diversity gradient, but diversity decline towards high latitudes is poorly documented for many invertebrate taxa. Therefore, we sampled land snail assemblages at 79 sites and in various habitat types in central Yakutia, a region with extremely continental, cool and dry climate. We tested whether habitats lacking suitable shelters for winter survival harbour less species than those with vegetation cover that softens climatic extremes. Both local species diversity and regional species diversity were extremely low: 13 species were recorded in total with an average of 1.4 species per site. While the majority of grassland sites were without snails (26 of 34 sites), forest sites supported at least one snail species in most cases (38 of 45 sites). Within grasslands, snail occurrences were associated with a higher herb-layer biomass. Numbers of snail species correlated with the amount of available calcium only in forests, in which species accumulation towards more favourable habitats was possible due to softening of climate harshness. As minute snails are known to be effective passive dispersers and the study area was not glaciated during the last glacial stage, there was certainly enough time for colonization of all favourable habitats. Our results suggest climatically driven limitations of both local and regional land snail diversity in central Yakutia. We conclude that the hypothesis of climate harshness remains the most probable explanation of a sharp drop in land snail diversity in high-latitude areas with cold climate.     

Importance of scale,land‐use,and stream network properties for riparian plant communities along an urban gradient

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Contrasting patterns in species richness of birds,butterflies and plants along riparian corridors in an urban landscape

Aim Urbanization is a major driver of global land‐use change, substantially modifying patterns of biodiversity. Managing these impacts has become a conservation priority. The creation and maintenance of greenways, such as river corridors, is frequently promoted as a strategy for mitigating habitat fragmentation in urban areas by bringing semi‐natural habitat cover into city centres. However, there is little evidence to support this assertion. Here, we examine whether riparian zones maintain semi‐natural habitat cover in urban areas and how species richness varies along such zones. Location Sheffield, Northern England. Methods Multiple taxonomic groups (birds, butterflies, plants) were surveyed at 105 sites spanning seven riparian corridors that transect the study system. For all groups, we model the relationships between species richness and environmental variables pertinent to an urban system. To test whether riparian zones can act to maintain semi‐natural habitats within a city, we modelled the proportion of semi‐natural land cover within 250 m grid squares that do, and do not, contain a river. Results Species richness varied markedly in relation to distance from the urban core. Trends differed both between taxonomic groups and between rivers, reflecting the complex patterns of environmental variation associated with cities. This suggests that biodiversity surveys that focus on a single group or transect cannot reliably be used as surrogates even within the same city. Nonetheless, there were common environmental predictors of species richness. Plant, avian and butterfly richness all responded positively to Habitat Diversity and the latter two declined with increases in sealed surface. Main conclusions Multiple transects and taxonomic groups are required to describe species richness responses to urbanization as no single pattern is evident. Although riparian zones are an important component of the mosaic of urban habitats, we find that river corridors do not disproportionately support tree and Natural Surface Cover when compared to non‐riverine urban areas.     

Competitive displacement or biotic resistance? Disentangling relationships between community diversity and invasion success of tall herbs and shrubs

Questions: Are negative invasion–diversity relationships due to biotic resistance of the invaded plant community or to post‐invasion displacement of less competitive species? Do invasion–diversity relationships change with habitat type or resident traits? Location/species: Lowlands and uplands of western and southern Germany, Heracleum mantegazzianum; mountain range in central Germany, Lupinus polyphyllus; and coastal dunes of northwest Germany, Rosa rugosa. Methods: We tested the significance and estimated regression slopes of invasion–diversity relationships using generalized linear (mixed effects) models relating invader cover and habitat type to species richness in different plant groups, stratified based on size, life cycle and community association. Results: We found negative, positive and neutral relationships between invader cover and species richness. There were negative linear correlations of invader cover with small plant species throughout, but no negative linear correlation with tall species. Invasion–diversity relationships tended to be more negative in early‐successional habitats, such as dunes or abandoned grasslands, than in late‐successional habitats. Conclusions: Invasion diversity–relationships are complex; they vary among habitat types and among different groups of resident species. Negative invasion–diversity relationships are due to asymmetric competitive displacement of inferior species and not due to biotic resistance. Small species are displaced in early‐successional habitats, while there is little effect on persistence of tall species.     

Evaluation of floristic diversity in urban areas as a basis for habitat management

Questions: How can floristic diversity be evaluated in conser‐vation plans to identify sites of highest interest for biodiversity? What are the mechanisms influencing the distribution of species in human‐dominated environments? What are the best criteria to identify sites where active urban management is most likely to enhance floristic diversity? Location: The Hauts‐de‐Seine district bordering Paris, France. Methods: We described the floristic diversity in one of the most urbanized French districts through the inventory of ca. 1000 sites located in 23 habitats. We built a new index of floristic interest (IFI), integrating information on richness, indigeneity, typicality and rarity of species, to identify sites and habitats of highest interest for conservation. Finally, we explored the relationship between site IFI and land use patterns (LUP). Results: We observed a total of 626 vascular plant species. Habitats with highest IFI were typically situated in seminatural environments or environments with moderate human impact. We also showed that neighbouring (urban) structures had a significant influence on the floristic interest of sites: for example, the presence of collective dwellings around a site had a strong negative impact on IFI. Conclusions: Our approach can be used to optimize management in urban zones; we illustrate such possibilities by defining a ‘Site Potential Value’, which was then compared with the observed IFI, to identify areas (e.g. river banks) where better management could improve the district's biodiversity.     

Diversity and community composition of herbaceous plants in different habitat types in south‐east Cameroon

The composition of herbaceous vegetation was evaluated with the aim of characterizing forests at various ages of stand development. Herb stems were sampled in 250 4‐m² square plots distributed within six habitat types. A total of 36 herb species belonging to 15 families were recorded. Species richness did not significantly differ between habitat types. Most herb species occurred in all habitat types and were therefore generalists. However, a few indicator herb species were detected, and the results roughly suggested that herb species of the families Poaceae and Araceae were indicative of late successional forests; Zingiberaceae are indicative of early successional forests; and Commelinaceae, Costaceae, Cyperaceae and Marantaceae are indicators of flooded habitats. Species diversity and stem density of herbaceous plants did not change with forest succession as a decrease in abundance and frequency of occurrence of pioneer species in late successional forests was counterbalanced by the presence of generalist and late successional species. However, increasing proportions of dwarf stems in late successional forests translated to changes in the vertical structure of herbaceous plant communities. Herbivory pressure by gorillas did not have a notable effect on herbaceous plant community development. This study contributes to the definition of herbaceous ecological indicators of forest succession in different settings.     

Threatened vascular plant species in spontaneously revegetated post‐mining sites

The occurrence of threatened vascular plant species has been occasionally reported from some disturbed sites. Nevertheless, almost nothing is known about the conservation potential of post‐mining habitats for vascular plant species at a landscape scale. We asked how much threatened species occur in the artificial habitats, and if the participation of particular threatened species categories differ over the course of succession. We studied 10 successional series running in 321 post‐mining sites across the Czech Republic, Central Europe. In total, 2,597 vegetation samples comprising 935 vascular plant species were analyzed. We found 235 threatened species (14% of the country's threatened flora). The majority of the threatened plants, namely 223, avoided plots overgrown by woody species, in which only 48 species occurred. The importance of spontaneously revegetated habitats for nature conservation differed among successional stages formed by discontinuous vegetation cover (not fully developed and still open, up to approximately 25 years since site abandonment), which harbored especially critically endangered species of open habitats, and continuous vegetation cover (fully developed and closed, over approximately 25 years), which was suitable for specialized threatened species typical of fully established vegetation. A mosaic of various successional stages comprising both categories of vegetation cover should be applied as an effective restoration solution to maintain a variety of habitats for threatened species.     

Extensively managed or abandoned urban green spaces and their habitat potential for butterflies

Urban green spaces are often subject to intensive management and therefore only provide habitat for very few plant and animal species. Many studies have already proven that less intensive management of near-natural grassland habitats can increase species diversity, for example of butterflies. However, there is still a lack of knowledge as to what extent less intensive management of urban green spaces can promote urban butterfly diversity. Therefore, we examined parameters that determine the number of butterfly species in less maintained or even abandoned urban green spaces. We expected butterfly species richness and observation numbers to be affected by different management regimes. Butterfly surveys were carried out on 56 sites in the city of Hannover, Germany, in three consecutive years. The sites were subject to different management regimes. We explored parameters such as area size, the diversity of nectar plant species and habitat diversity for each site. A total of 34 species were recorded, with a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 17 species per site and year. The extreme drought and heat in 2018 clearly influenced the results of our study and this was reflected in massive decreases of observation numbers for some species. Less intensive management showed preferable effects in comparison to intensive management, but area size and nectar plants were more important factors influencing butterfly species richness and number of observations. Our results suggest that site parameters such as area size, nectar plant species richness or number of habitat types had stronger influences on butterflies than variations of extensive management. We conclude that less intensive urban green space management for good butterfly habitats is not a question of grazing, mowing or temporary abandonment, but instead must aim to increase nectar plant and habitat diversity.