Mutants of Escherichia coli with an altered tyrosyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase

We have isolated several mutants defective in the gene for tyrosyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase (tyrS). One of these mutants is described in detail. It was isolated as a tyrosine auxotroph with defects both in the tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase and in the tyrosine biosynthetic enzyme, prephenate dehydrogenase. It also had derepressed levels of the tyrosine-specific 3-deoxy-d-arabinoheptulosonic acid-7-phosphate (DAHP) synthetase. The latter finding suggested that a wild-type tyrS gene was required for repression of the tyrosine biosynthetic enzymes. The following results demonstrated that this hypothesis was not correct. (i) When the defective tyrS gene was transferred to another strain, the tyrosine-specific DAHP synthetase in that strain was not derepressed, and (ii) two other mutants with defective tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases had repressed levels of the tyrosine biosynthetic enzymes. The tyrS gene was located near minute 32 on the Escherichia coli chromosome by interrupted mating experiments.     

Temperature-induced derepression of tryptophan biosynthesis in a tryptophanyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase mutant of Bacillus subtilis

A tryptophanyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase (l-tryptophan: tRNA ligase adenosine monophosphate, EC 6.1.1.2) mutant (trpS1) of Bacillus subtilis is derepressed for enzymes of the tryptophan biosynthetic pathway at temperatures which reduce the growth rate but still allow exponential growth. Derepression of anthranilate synthase in a tryptophan-supplemented medium (50 mug/ml) is maximal at 36 C, and the differential rate of synthesis is 600- to 2,000-fold greater than that of the wild-type strain or trpS1 revertants. A study of the derepression pattern in the mutant and its revertants indicates that the 5-fluorotryptophan recognition site of the tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase is an integral part of the repression mechanism. Evidence for a second locus, unlinked to the trpS1 locus, which functions in the repression of tryptophan biosynthetic enzymes is presented.     

The 'KMSKS' motif in tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase participates in the initial binding of tRNA(Tyr)

Variants at each position of the 'KMSKS' signature motif in tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase have been analyzed to test the hypothesis that this motif is involved in catalysis of the second step of the aminoacylation reaction (i.e., the transfer of tyrosine from the enzyme-bound tyrosyl-adenylate intermediate to the tRNA(Tyr) substrate). Pre-steady-state kinetic studies show that while the rate constants for tyrosine transfer (k(4)) are similar to the wild-type value for all of the mobile loop variants, the K230A and K233A variants have increased dissociation constants (K(d)(tRNA)( )()= 2.4 and 1.7 microM, respectively) relative to the wild-type enzyme (K(d)(tRNA)( )()= 0.39 microM). In contrast, the K(d)(tRNA) values for the F231L, G232A, and T234A variants are similar to that of the wild-type enzyme. The K(d)(tRNA) value for a loop deletion variant, Delta(227-234), is similar to that for the K230A/K233A double mutant variant (3.4 and 3.0 microM, respectively). Double mutant free energy cycle analysis indicates there is a synergistic interaction between the side chains of K230 and K233 during the initial binding of tRNA(Tyr) (DeltaDeltaG(int) = -0.74 kcal/mol). These results suggest that while the 'KMSKS' motif is important for the initial binding of tRNA(Tyr) to tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, it does not play a catalytic role in the second step of the reaction. These studies provide the first kinetic evidence that the 'KMSKS' motif plays a role in the initial binding of tRNA(Tyr) to tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase.     

Repression of aromatic amino acid biosynthesis in Escherichia coli K-12

Mutants of Escherichia coli K-12 were isolated in which the synthesis of the following, normally repressible enzymes of aromatic biosynthesis was constitutive: 3-deoxy-d-arabinoheptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP) synthetases (phe and tyr), chorismate mutase T-prephenate dehydrogenase, and transaminase A. In the wild type, DAHP synthetase (phe) was multivalently repressed by phenylalanine plus tryptophan, whereas DAHP synthetase (tyr), chorismate mutase T-prephenate dehydrogenase, and transaminase A were repressed by tyrosine. DAHP synthetase (tyr) and chorismate mutase T-prephenate dehydrogenase were also repressed by phenylalanine in high concentration (10(-3)m). Besides the constitutive synthesis of DAHP synthetase (phe), the mutants had the same phenotype as strains mutated in the tyrosine regulatory gene tyrR. The mutations causing this phenotype were cotransducible with trpA, trpE, cysB, and pyrF and mapped in the same region as tyrR at approximately 26 min on the chromosome. It is concluded that these mutations may be alleles of the tyrR gene and that synthesis of the enzymes listed above is controlled by this gene. Chorismate mutase P and prephenate dehydratase activities which are carried on a single protein were repressed by phenylalanine alone and were not controlled by tyrR. Formation of this protein is presumed to be controlled by a separate, unknown regulator gene. The heat-stable phenylalanine transaminase and two enzymes of the common aromatic pathway, 5-dehydroquinate synthetase and 5-dehydroquinase, were not repressible under the conditions studied and were not affected by tyrR. DAHP synthetase (trp) and tryptophan synthetase were repressed by tryptophan and have previously been shown to be under the control of the trpR regulatory gene. These enzymes also were unaffected by tyrR.     

Methionine-mediated repression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a pleiotropic regulatory system involving methionyl transfer ribonucleic acid and the product of gene eth2

Detailed study of methionine-mediated repression of enzymes involved in methionine biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae led to classification of these enzymes into two distinct regulatory groups. Group I comprises four enzymes specifically involved in different parts of methionine biosynthesis, namely, homoserine-O-transacetylase, homocysteine synthetase, adenosine triphosphate sulfurylase, and sulfite reductase. Repressibility of these enzymes is greatly decreased in strains carrying a genetically impaired methionyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase (mutation ts(-) 296). Conditions leading to absence of repression in the mutant strain have been correlated with a sharp decrease in bulk tRNA(met) charging, whereas conditions which restore repressibility of group I enzymes also restore tRNA(met) charging. These findings implicate methionyl-tRNA in the regulatory process. However, the absence of a correlation in the wild type between methionyl-tRNA charging and the levels of methionine group I enzymes suggests that only a minor iso accepting species of tRNA(met) may be devoted with a regulatory function. Repressibility of the same four enzymes (group I) was also decreased in strains carrying the regulatory mutation eth2(r). Although structural genes coding for two of these enzymes, as well as mutations ts(-) 296 and eth2(r) segregate independently to each other, synthesis of group I enzymes is coordinated. The pleiotropic regulatory system involved seems then to comprise beside a "regulatory methionyl tRNA(met)," another element, product of gene eth2, which might correspond either to an aporepressor protein or to the "regulatory tRNA(met)" itself. Regulation of group II enzymes is defined by response to exogenous methionine, absence of response to either mutations ts(-) 296 and eth2(r), and absence of coordinacy with group I enzymes. However, the two enzymes which belong to this group and are both involved in threonine and methionine biosynthesis undergo distinct regulatory patterns. One, aspartokinase, is subject to a bivalent repression exerted by threonine and methionine, and the other, homoserine dehydrogenase, is subject only to methionine-mediated repression. Participation of at least another aporepressor and another corepressor, different from the ones involved in regulation of group I enzymes, is discussed.     

Evidence for two types of complexes formed by yeast tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase with cognate and non-cognate tRNA. Effect of ribonucleoside triphosphates

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis at pH 8.3 was used to detect and quantitate the formation of the yeast tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (an alpha 2-type enzyme) complex with its cognate tRNA. Electrophoretic mobility of the complex is intermediate between the free enzyme and free tRNA; picomolar quantities can be readily detected by silver staining and quantitated by densitometry of autoradiograms when [32P]tRNA is used. Two kinds of complexes of Tyr-tRNA synthetase with yeast tRNA(Tyr) were detected. A slower-moving complex is formed at ratios of tRNA(Tyr)/enzyme less than or equal to 0.5; it is assigned the composition tRNA.(alpha 2)2. At higher ratios, a faster-moving complex is formed, approaching saturation at tRNA(Tyr)/enzyme = 1; any excess of tRNA(Tyr) remains unbound. This complex is assigned the composition tRNA.alpha 2. The slower, i.e. tRNA.(alpha 2)2 complex, but not the faster complex, can be formed even with non-cognate tRNAs. Competition experiments show that the affinity of the enzyme towards tRNA(Tyr) is at least 10-fold higher than that for the non-cognate tRNAs. ATP and GTP affect the electrophoretic mobility of the enzyme and prevent the formation of tRNA.(alpha 2)2 complexes both with cognate and non-cognate tRNAs, while neither tyrosine, as the third substrate of Tyr tRNA synthetase, nor AMP, AMP/PPi, or spermidine, have such effects. Hence, the ATP-mediated formation of the alpha 2 structure parallels the increase in specificity of the enzyme towards its cognate tRNA.     

Isoleucine auxotrophy as a consequence of a mutationally altered isoleucyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase

Among mutants which require isoleucine, but not valine, for growth, we have found two distinguishable classes. One is defective in the biosynthetic enzyme threonine deaminase (l-threonine hydro-lyase, deaminating, EC 4.2.1.16) and the other has an altered isoleucyl transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase [l-isoleucine: soluble RNA ligase (adenosine monophosphate), EC 6.1.1.5]. The mutation which affects ileS, the structural gene for isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase, is located between thr and pyrA at 0 min on the map of the Escherichia coli chromosome. This mutationally altered isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase has an apparent K(m) for isoleucine ( approximately 1 mm) 300-fold higher than that of the enzyme from wild type; on the other hand, the apparent V(max) is altered only slightly. When the mutationally altered ileS allele was introduced into a strain which overproduces isoleucine, the resulting strain could grow without addition of isoleucine. We conclude that the normal intracellular isoleucine level is not high enough to allow efficient charging to tRNA(Ile) by the mutant enzyme because of the K(m) defect. A consequence of the alteration in isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase was a fourfold derepression of the enzymes responsible for isoleucine biosynthesis. Thus, a functional isoleucyl-tRNA synthetase is needed for isoleucine to act as a regulator of its own biosynthesis.     

Regulation of histidyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase formation in a histidyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase mutant of Salmonella typhimurium

Control of formation of the histidyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase with an increased K(m) for histidine was studied in a hisS mutant of Salmonella typhimurium. Histidine restriction of both the hisS and hisS(+) strains resulted in a derepression of synthesis of histidyl-tRNA synthetase. When grown in a concentration less than the K(m) (100 mug/ml) of l-histidine, the hisS mutant maintained a higher level of histidyl-tRNA synthetase than the hisS(+) strain. Addition of excess amounts of l-histidine to the growth medium of the hisS mutant culture grown with 100 mug of l-histidine per ml resulted in a repression of histidyl-tRNA synthetase formation to equal that of the hisS(+) strain grown in 100 mug of l-histidine per ml. These data confirm previous findings that histidine tRNA is involved in the repression of synthesis of histidyl-tRNA synthetase.     

Correlating amino acid conservation with function in tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase

Sequence comparisons have been combined with mutational and kinetic analyses to elucidate how the catalytic mechanism of Bacillus stearothermophilus tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase evolved. Catalysis of tRNA(Tyr) aminoacylation by tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase involves two steps: activation of the tyrosine substrate by ATP to form an enzyme-bound tyrosyl-adenylate intermediate, and transfer of tyrosine from the tyrosyl-adenylate intermediate to tRNA(Tyr). Previous investigations indicate that the class I conserved KMSKS motif is involved in only the first step of the reaction (i.e. tyrosine activation). Here, we demonstrate that the class I conserved HIGH motif also is involved only in the tyrosine activation step. In contrast, one amino acid that is conserved in a subset of the class I aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, Thr40, and two amino acids that are present only in tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases, Lys82 and Arg86, stabilize the transition states for both steps of the tRNA aminoacylation reaction. These results imply that stabilization of the transition state for the first step of the reaction by the class I aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases preceded stabilization of the transition state for the second step of the reaction. This is consistent with the hypothesis that the ability of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases to catalyze the activation of amino acids with ATP preceded their ability to catalyze attachment of the amino acid to the 3' end of tRNA. We propose that the primordial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases replaced a ribozyme whose function was to promote the reaction of amino acids and other small molecules with ATP.     

Phenylalanine and tyrosine biosynthesis in Escherichia coli K-12: mutants derepressed for 3-deoxy-D-arabinoheptulosonic acid 7-phosphate synthetase (phe), 3-deoxy-D-arabinoheptulosonic acid 7-phosphate synthetase (tyr), chorismate mutase T-prephenate dehydrogenase, and transaminase A

Mutant strains of Escherichia coli have been isolated in which the synthesis of 3-deoxy-d-arabinoheptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP) synthetase (phe) is derepressed, in addition to those enzymes of tyrosine biosynthesis previously shown to be controlled by the gene tyrR. The major enzyme of the terminal pathway of phenylalanine biosynthesis chorismate mutase-prephenate dehydratase is not derepressed in these strains. Genetic analysis of the mutants shows that the mutation or mutations causing derepression map close to previously reported tyrR mutations. A study of one of the mutations has shown it to be recessive to the wild-type allele in a diploid strain. It is proposed that the tyrR gene product is involved in the regulation of the synthesis of DAHP synthetase (phe) as well as the synthesis of DAHP synthetase (tyr), chorismate mutase-prephenate dehydrogenase, and transaminase A.     

Dominant Intermediate Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder is not due to a catalytic defect in tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder (CMT) is the most common inherited peripheral neuropathy, afflicting 1 in every 2500 Americans. One form of this disease, Dominant Intermediate Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder type C (DI-CMTC), is due to mutation of the gene encoding the cytoplasmic tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (TyrRS). Three different TyrRS variants have been found to give rise to DI-CMTC: replacing glycine at position 41 by arginine (G41R), replacing glutamic acid at position 196 by lysine (E196K), and deleting amino acids 153-156 (Δ(153-156)). To test the hypothesis that DI-CMTC is due to a defect in the ability of tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase to catalyze the aminoacylation of tRNA(Tyr), we have expressed each of these variants as recombinant proteins and used single turnover kinetics to characterize their abilities to catalyze the activation of tyrosine and its subsequent transfer to the 3' end of tRNA(Tyr). Two of the variants, G41R and Δ(153-156), display a substantial decrease in their ability to bind tyrosine (>100-fold). In contrast, the E196K substitution does not significantly affect the kinetics for formation of the tyrosyl-adenylate intermediate and actually increases the rate at which the tyrosyl moiety is transferred to tRNA(Tyr). The observation that the E196K substitution does not decrease the rate of catalysis indicates that DI-CMTC is not due to a catalytic defect in tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase.     

Regulation of the biosynthesis of aminoacyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetases and of transfer ribonucleic acid in Escherichia coli. V. Mutants with increased levels of valyl-transfer ribonucleic acid synthetase.

Spontaneous revertants of a temperature-sensitive Escherichia coli strain harboring a thermolabile valyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase were selected for growth at 40 degrees C. Of these, a large number still contain the thermolabile valyl-tRNA synthetase. Three of these revertants contained an increased level of the thermolabile enzyme. The genetic locus, valX, responsible for the enzyme overproduction, is adjacent to the structural gene, valS, of valyl-tRNA synthetase. Determination (by radioimmunoassay) of the turnover rates of valyl-tRNA synthetase showed that the increased level of valyl-tRNA synthetase is due to new enzyme synthesis rather than decreased rates of protein degradation.     

Role of Histidine Transfer Ribonucleic Acid in Regulation of Synthesis of Histidyl-Transfer Ribonucleic Acid Synthetase of Salmonella typhimurium

The role of histidine transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) in repression of synthesis of histidyl-tRNA synthetase was examined in two strains of Salmonella typhimurium, one of which was a histidine tRNA (hisR) mutant possessing 52% of the wild-type (hisR(+)) histidine tRNA and a derepressed level of the histidine biosynthetic enzymes during histidine-unrestricted growth. Histidine-restricted growth caused a derepression of the rate of formation of histidyl-tRNA synthetase in both strains. In the case of the wild-type strain, addition of histidine to the derepressed culture caused a repression of synthesis of histidyl-tRNA synthetase for at least one generation of growth. In contrast, when histidine was restored to the derepressed hisR mutant culture, synthesis of histidyl-tRNA synthetase was continued at the initial derepressed rate. These results suggest that histidine must be attached to histidine tRNA for repression of synthesis of histidyl-tRNA synthetase.     

Enzymatic Basis for Overproduction of Tryptophan and Its Metabolites in Hansenula polymorpha Mutants

3-Deoxy-d-arabinoheptulosonate 7-phosphate (DAHP) synthetase and anthranilate synthetase are key regulatory enzymes in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway. The DAHP synthetase activity of Hansenula polymorpha was subject to additive feedback inhibition by phenylalanine and tyrosine but not by tryptophan. The synthesis of DAHP synthetase in this yeast was not repressed by exogenous aromatic amino acids, singly or in combinations. The activity of anthranilate synthetase was sensitive to feedback inhibition by tryptophan, but exogenous tryptophan did not repress the synthesis of this enzyme. Nevertheless, internal repression of anthranilate synthetase probably exists, since the content of this enzyme in H. polymorpha strain 3-136 was double that in the wild-type and less sensitive 5-fluorotryptophan-resistant strains. The biochemical mechanism for the overproduction of indoles by the 5-fluorotryptophan-resistant mutants was due primarily to a partial desensitization of the anthranilate synthetase of these strains to feedback inhibition by tryptophan. These results support the concept that inhibition of enzyme activities rather than enzyme repression is more important in the regulation of aromatic amino acid biosynthesis in H. polymorpha.     

Regulation of aromatic amino acid transport systems in Escherichia coli K-12.

The regulation of the aromatic amino acid transport systems was investigated. The common (general) aromatic transport system and the tyrosine-specific transport system were found to be subject to repression control, thus confirming earlier reports. In addition, tryosine- and tryptophan-specific transport were found to be enhanced by growth of cells with phenylalanine. The repression and enhancement of the transport systems was abolished in a strain carrying an amber mutation in the regulator gene tyrR. This indicates that the tyrR gene product, which was previously shown to be involved in regulation of aromatic biosynthetic enzymes, is also involved in the regulation of the aromatic amino acid transport systems.     

Catalysis of tyrosyl-adenylate formation by the human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase

Although the active site residues in the Bacillus stearothermophilus and human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases are largely conserved, several differences exist between the two enzymes. In particular, three amino acids that stabilize the transition state for the activation of tyrosine in B. stearothermophilus tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (Cys-35, His-48, and Lys-233) are not present in the human enzyme. This raises the question of whether the activation energy for the tyrosine activation step is higher for the human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase than for the B. stearothermophilus enzyme. In this paper, we demonstrate that intrinsic fluorescence changes can be used to monitor the pre-steady state kinetics of human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase. In contrast to the B. stearothermophilus enzyme, catalysis of the tyrosine activation step is potassium-dependent in the human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase. Specifically, potassium increases the forward rate constant for tyrosine activation 260-fold in the human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase. Comparison of the forward rate constants for catalysis of tyrosine activation by the human and B. stearothermophilus enzymes indicates that despite differences in their active sites and the potassium requirement of the human enzyme, the activation energies for tyrosine activation are identical for the two enzymes. The results of these investigations suggest that differences exist between the active sites of the bacterial and human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases that could be exploited to design antimicrobials that target the bacterial enzyme.     

Expression,purification, and characterization of human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase

Human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase is a homodimeric enzyme and each subunit is near 58 KD. It catalyzes the aminoacylation of tRNA(Tyr) by L-tyrosine. The His(6)-tagged human TyrS gene was obtained by RT-PCR from total RNA of human lung giant-cell cancer strain 95 D. It was confirmed by sequencing and cloned into the expression vector pET-24 a (+) to yield pET-24 a (+)-HTyrRS, which was transfected into Escherichia coli BL21-CodonPlus-RIL. The induced-expression level of His(6)-tagged human TyrRS was about 24% of total cell proteins under IPTG inducing. The recombinant protein was conveniently purified in a single step by metal (Ni(2+)) chelate affinity chromatography. About 22.3mg purified enzyme could be obtained from 1L cell culture. The k(cat) value of His(6)-tagged human TyrRS in the second step of tRNA(Tyr) aminoacylation was 1.49 s(-1). The K(m) values of tyrosine and tRNA(Tyr) were 0.3 and 0.9 microM. Six His residues at the C terminus of human TyrRS have little effect on the activities of the enzyme compared with other eukaryotic TyrRSs.     

A bacterial amber suppressor in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is selectively recognized by a bacterial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.

Little is known about the conservation of determinants for the identities of tRNAs between organisms. We showed previously that Escherichia coli tyrosine tRNA synthetase can charge the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondrial tyrosine tRNA in vivo, even though there are substantial sequence differences between the yeast mitochondrial and bacterial tRNAs. The S. cerevisiae cytoplasmic tyrosine tRNA differs in sequence from both its yeast mitochondrial and E. coli counterparts. To test whether the yeast cytoplasmic tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase recognizes the E. coli tRNA, we expressed various amounts of an E. coli tyrosine tRNA amber suppressor in S. cerevisiae. The bacterial tRNA did not suppress any of three yeast amber alleles, suggesting that the yeast enzymes retain high specificity in vivo for their homologous tRNAs. Moreover, the nucleotides in the sequence of the E. coli suppressor that are not shared with the yeast cytoplasmic tyrosine tRNA do not create determinants which are efficiently recognized by other yeast charging enzymes. Therefore, at least some of the determinants that influence in vivo recognition of the tyrosine tRNA are specific to the cell compartment and organism. In contrast, expression of the cognate bacterial tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase together with the bacterial suppressor tRNA led to suppression of all three amber alleles. The bacterial enzyme recognized its substrate in vivo, even when the amount of bacterial tRNA was less than about 0.05% of that of the total cytoplasmic tRNA.     

Role of Isoleucyl-Transfer Ribonucleic Acid Synthetase in Ribonucleic Acid Synthesis and Enzyme Repression in Yeast

Temperature-sensitive mutations in the isoleucyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase of yeast, ilS(-)1-1 and ilS(-)1-2, were used to examine the role of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes in the regulation of ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis and enzyme synthesis in a eucaryotic organism. At the permissive temperature, 70 to 100% of the intracellular isoleucyl-tRNA was charged in mutants carrying these mutations; at growth-limiting temperatures, less than 10% was charged with isoleucine. Other aminoacyl-tRNA molecules remained essentially fully charged under both conditions. Net protein and RNA syntheses were rapidly inhibited when the mutant was shifted from the permissive to the restrictive temperature. Most of the ribosomes remained in polyribosome structures at the restrictive temperature even though protein synthesis was strongly inhibited. Two of the enzymes of isoleucine biosynthesis, threonine deaminase and acetohydroxyacid synthetase, were derepressed about twofold during slow growth of the mutants at a growth-limiting temperature. This is about the same degree of derepression that is achieved by growth of an auxotroph on limiting isoleucine. We conclude that charged aminoacyl-tRNA is essential for RNA synthesis and for the multivalent repression of the isoleucine biosynthetic enzymes. Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzymes appear to play important regulatory roles in the cell physiology of eucaryotic organisms.     

Macromolecular recognition through electrostatic repulsion.

In the process of genetic translation, each aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase specifically aminoacylates its cognate tRNAs and rejects the 19 other species of tRNAs. A decrease in the specificity of this reaction can result in misincorporations of amino acids into proteins and be deleterious to the cell. In the case of tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase from Bacillus stearothermophilus, the change of residue Glu152 into Ala results in erroneous interactions with non-cognate tRNAs. To analyse how Glu152 contributes to the discrimination between tRNAs by tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, 11 changes to this residue were created by mutagenesis. The misaminoacylations of tRNA(Phe) and tRNA(Val) with tyrosine in vitro (on a scale going from 1 to 30) and the toxicity of tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase in vivo (on a scale from 1 to 10(7)) increased in a correlated way when the nature of the side chain in position 152 varied from negatively charged to uncharged then to positively charged. The aminoacylation of tRNA(Tyr) was unaffected by the mutations. The results show that the role of Glu152 in the discrimination between tRNAs is purely negative, that it acts by electrostatic repulsion of non-cognate tRNAs and that this mechanism has been conserved throughout evolution.