Symmetrical cationic triglycerides: an efficient synthesis and application to gene transfer

Some cationic triglycerides 1Aa-1Cb which have a symmetrical structure were effectively synthesized and formulated into cationic liposomes with the co-lipid dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) and/or dilauroylphosphatidylcholine (DLPC). The plasmid encoding a luciferase was delivered into CHO cells by using these cationic liposomes. Our symmetrical cationic triglycerides showed high transfection activity when DOPE was used as a co-lipid. Among the symmetrical cationic triglycerides synthesized here, 1Ab and 1Ac, which have an oleoyl group at the 1- and 3-position in the glycerol backbone and also have a relatively long linker connecting the 2-hydroxy group in glycerol with the quaternary ammonium head group, were found to be the most suitable for gene delivery into cells. The transfection activity of the symmetrical cationic triglyceride 1Ab was comparable with that of its asymmetrical congener 6 and several times higher than that of Lipofectin.     

Differential immunogenicity of a DNA vaccine containing the Streptococcus mutans wall-associated protein A gene versus that containing a truncated derivative antigen A lacking in the hydrophobic carboxyterminal region

Two plasmid DNA constructs were obtained by cloning separately into the eukaryotic expression vector pcDNA3.1/V5-His-TOPO the wall-associated protein A (wapA) gene of Streptococcus mutans GS-5 or its truncated derivative antigen A (agA) gene encoding a known candidate antigen for dental caries vaccine. The immunogenicity of the two constructs, designated pcDNA-wapA and pcDNA-agA, was compared by intranasal immunization of two groups of mice using the cationic DMRIE-C (1,2-dimyristyloxypropyl-3-dimethylhydroxy ethyl ammonium bromide-cholesterol) as an adjuvant. Immunization with pcDNA-wapA or pcDNA- agA resulted in specific salivary IgA and systemic IgG antibodies to the target antigens after two doses given at 3-week intervals. Higher salivary IgA level was observed in the mice immunized with the pcDNA-wapA vaccine compared to those immunized with the pcDNA-agA vaccine. Furthermore, anti-WapA antibody inhibited S. mutans sucrose-dependent adherence suggesting a potential protection against S. mutans colonization of the tooth, while anti-AgA had no significant effect. Indeed, prediction and analysis of protein epitopes showed that WapA contains highly promiscuous MHC-II binding motifs in addition to those found in AgA. Immunodot assay confirmed that WapA bound biotin-labeled dextran, whereas AgA did not. These data indicated that full-length WapA is a better candidate vaccine antigen than the soluble AgA, which is truncated in the hydrophobic membrane and wall-spanning region.     

Synthetic ampholytes for the isoelectric focusing of proteins

Products of the copolymerization of acrylic acid with oligoethylene oligoamines were used to establish natural pH gradients for the isoelectric fractionation of protein mixtures by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The unfractionated synthesized ampholytes were compared with the commercially available ampholytes with respect to the number of ampholyte components, the pH gradient and the resolution of protein mixtures. The performance of the ampholytes prepared employing the more highly substituted ethylene amines was found to be comparable to that of the commercial ampholytes over the pH range 4 to 8.     

The causal relationship between mutations in cAMP-dependent protein kinase and the loss of adrenocorticotropin-regulated adrenocortical functions.

The Y1 adrenocortical tumor cell mutants, Kin-7 and Kin-8, harbor point mutations in the regulatory subunit (RI) of the type 1 cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAMPdPK) that render the enzyme resistant to activation by cAMP. These mutants also are resistant to many of the regulatory effects of ACTH and cAMP. In order to examine the causal relationships between the mutations in cAMPdPK and the resistance to ACTH and cAMP, the Kin mutants were transfected with expression vectors encoding wild type subunits of cAMPdPK in order to restore cAMP-responsive protein kinase activity. The transformants then were screened for the concomitant recovery of cellular responsiveness to ACTH and cAMP. In the mutant Kin-7, cAMP-responsive protein kinase activity was recovered after transfection with an expression vector encoding wild type mouse RI. Protein kinase activity in the mutant Kin-8 remained largely cAMP-resistant after transfection with the RI expression vector but could be rendered cAMP-responsive by transfection with an expression vector encoding the wild type catalytic subunit. The recovery of cAMP-responsive protein kinase activity was accompanied by the recovery of steroidogenic and morphological responses to ACTH and cAMP, suggesting that the cAMP-dependent signaling cascade plays an obligatory role in these actions of ACTH. The growth-regulatory effects of cAMP were not reversed with the recovery of cAMP-responsive protein kinase activity, suggesting that cAMP-resistant growth regulation results from second-site, adaptive mutations either in the original Kin mutant population or in the transformants. Studies on the conversion of 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol into steroid products in parent and mutant cells indicate that the Kin mutations reduce the steroidogenic capacity of the cell as well as inhibit the hormone- and cyclic nucleotide-dependent mobilization of substrate cholesterol.     

Use of a quaternary ammonium detergent in liposome mediated DNA transfection of mouse L-cells

Sonicated liposomes composed of dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) and a quaternary ammonium detergent (dodecyl-, tetradecyl-, or cetyl-trimethylammonium bromide) mediates functional transfer of pSV2 CAT plasmid DNA to mouse L929 fibroblasts. Successful transfection was determined by assaying for chloramphenicol acetyltransferase activity in cell lysates collected 40 h after exposure to the lipid-DNA complexes. Liposomes prepared with the quaternary ammonium detergents were less toxic than the free detergents at the same concentrations and were more efficient in their delivery of the plasmid DNA to the cells. Analysis of the three detergents in combination with the lipid showed that cetyltrimethylammonium bromide was least toxic to the cells. This detergent, at a minimal concentration of 20 mol% in DOPE, allowed for stable liposome preparations and efficient transfection. Optimal efficiency of transfection occurred with 30 micrograms of DNA. Further increases in the DNA concentration caused a decrease in the transfection efficiency, perhaps due to charge repulsions between the liposomes now saturated with negatively charged DNA and the negatively charged cell surface. The transfection activity of the liposome was limited by its cytotoxicity at high liposome concentrations. These results are compared with that of the Lipofectin, another positively charged liposome preparation which is commercially available. Although the overall transfection activity of the liposome containing the quaternary ammonium detergent is somewhat lower than that of the Lipofectin, it may serve as an inexpensive and convenient alternative.     

Investigation into the use of C- and N-terminal GFP fusion proteins for subcellular localization studies using reverse transfection microarrays

Reverse transfection microarrays were described recently as a high throughput method for studying gene function. We have investigated the use of this technology for determining the subcellular localization of proteins. Genes encoding 16 proteins with a variety of functions were placed in Gateway expression constructs with 3' or 5' green fluorescent protein (GFP) tags. These were then packaged in transfection reagent and spotted robotically onto a glass slide to form a reverse transfection array. HEK293T cells were grown over the surface of the array until confluent and GFP fluorescence visualized by confocal microscopy. All C-terminal fusion proteins localized to cellular compartments in accordance with previous studies and/or bioinformatic predictions. However, less than half of the N-terminal fusion proteins localized correctly. Of those that were not in concordance with the C-terminal tagged proteins, half did not exhibit expression and the remainder had differing subcellular localizations to the C-terminal fusion protein. This data indicates that N-terminal tagging with GFP adversely affects the protein localization in reverse transfection assays, whereas tagging with GFP at the C-terminal is generally better in preserving the localization of the native protein. We discuss these results in the context of developing high-throughput subcellular localization assays based on the reverse transfection array technology.     

含GDNF基因的慢病毒载体的构建和其在人胚胎神经干细胞中的表达

利用含胶质源性神经营养因子(Glial cell derived neurotrophic factor, GDNF)基因的慢病毒(Lentivirus)载体转染了人胚胎来源的神经干细胞, 探讨了转染后GDNF在神经干细胞中的体外表达水平及其影响因素。首先GDNF基因被克隆入慢病毒载体, 通过瞬时转染法包装出病毒上清, 经滴度鉴定后分别按拷贝数分别为 1、2.5、5、10转染神经干细胞。转染后细胞经过潮霉素筛选得到均一表达GDNF的神经干细胞体系。其后分别利用酶联免疫吸附(ELISA)方法和Real-time PCR方法测定不同转染组细胞在不同时间点GDNF的蛋白分泌水平和基因表达水平。实验中构建了表达GDNF基因的慢病毒载体, 包装出的病毒上清在体外培养条件下成功转染了神经干细胞, 经潮霉素筛选可以得到均一的持续表达分泌GDNF的人胚胎皮层神经干细胞体系。实验结果表明转染拷贝数可以影响GDNF的分泌水平, 相同条件下转染拷贝数越高, GDNF分泌量越多, 其基因表达水平越高。因此, 含GDNF的慢病毒载体可以成功转染人胚胎来源的神经干细胞, 使其持续表达GDNF, 转染过程中可以通过拷贝数在一定水平上控制GDNF的蛋白分泌水平和基因表达水平。     

Dextran is resistant to lysosomal digestion in kidney tubules

Low molecular weight dextran (Rheomacrodex) was infused into dextran resistant rats in a dose of 5 g/kg body weight. The kidneys were studied by electron microscopy at different time intervals after infusion using a special fixative for the demonstration of dextran. The lysosomes of proximal tubule cells gradually accumulated dextran which remained in small amounts even after 10 days. In separate kidney slice experiments the ability of dextran-loaded proximal tubule lysosomes to digest absorbed proteins was determined using 125I-labelled lysozyme. There were no changes in lysosomal protein digestion. Labelled dextran was resistant to digestion in vitro by homogenates of rat or rabbit kidney cortex or isolated rat lysosomal enzymes. It is concluded that the protein absorption pathway and lysosomal protein catabolism is unchanged after tubular uptake of dextran despite pronounced ultrastructural alterations to the lysosomal system and that dextran is resistant to lysosomal digestion in renal proximal tubules.     

Ultrasound-mediated gene delivery: influence of contrast agent on transfection

MAT B III cells were insonified at ultrasound frequencies of 1.15 and 2.25 MHz in the presence of different ultrasound contrast agents (UCA) and a plasmid encoding for the green fluorescent protein. The transfection efficiency was assessed by flow cytometry, while contrast agent destruction by ultrasound was evaluated using optical and scanning electronic microscopies. It was found that the gas and shell properties of the UCA have an important influence on cell transfection. A good correlation was observed between bubble destruction and transfection rate, and it was demonstrated, for the first time, that hard-shelled contrast agents (gas microcapsules) are promising candidates for ultrasound-mediated gene delivery.     

Protein desalting by isoelectric focusing in a segmented immobilized pH gradient

We have recently described an apparatus for protein purification based on a segmented Immobiline gel, having one or more liquid interlayers in between. The principle is entirely new, as it is based on keeping the protein of interest isoelectric, in a flow chamber, and focusing the impurities in an Immobiline gel. For this, a hydraulic flow is coupled orthogonally to an electric flow, sweeping away the non-isoelectric impurities from the recycling chamber. We now demonstrate that the present apparatus can be efficiently used for protein desalting. Hemoglobin A samples, containing 50 mM NaCl or 50 mM ammonium acetate, could be efficiently desalted in 2 h of recycling, after which the total salt content had decreased to less than 0.005 mM (a salt decrement of more than 10,000 fold the initial input). However, with polyprotic buffers (sulphate, citrate, phosphate, oligoamines) the desalting process was much slower, typically of the order of 20 h, possibly due to interaction of these species with the surrounding Immobiline matrix. In this last case, outside pH control (e.g. with a pH-stat) is necessary during protein purification, as, due to the faster removal of the monovalent counterion, the solution in the recycling chamber can become rather acidic or alkaline. It is demonstrated that the 2 extremities of the Immobiline segments facing the sample recycling chamber act indeed as isoelectric membranes, having a good buffering capacity, preventing the protein macroion from leaving the chamber by continuously titrating it to its isoelectric point.     

Mefloquine induces ROS mediated programmed cell death in malaria parasite: Plasmodium

Recent studies pioneer the existence of a novel programmed cell death pathway in malaria parasite plasmodium and suggest that it could be helpful in developing new targeted anti-malarial therapies. Considering this fact, we evaluated the underlying action mechanism of this pathway in mefloquine (MQ) treated parasite. Since cysteine proteases play a key role in apoptosis hence we performed preliminary computational simulations to determine binding affinity of MQ with metacaspase protein model. Binding pocket identified using computational studies, was docked with MQ to identify it’s potential to bind with the predicted protein model. We further determined apoptotic markers such as mitochondrial dysregulation, activation of cysteine proteases and in situ DNA fragmentation in MQ treated/untreated parasites by cell based assay. Our results showed low mitochondrial membrane potential, enhanced activity of cysteine protease and increased number of fragmented DNA in treated parasites compared to untreated ones. We next tested the involvement of oxidative stress in MQ mediated cell death and found significant increase in reactive oxygen species generation after 24 h of treatment. Therefore we conclude that apart from hemozoin inhibition, MQ is competent to induce apoptosis in plasmodium by activating metacaspase and ROS production.     

Properties of Leuconostoc mesenteroides B-512FMC constitutive dextransucrase

Leuconostoc mesenteroides B-512FMC, a constitutive mutant for dextransucrase, was grown on glucose, fructose, or sucrose. The amount of cell-associated dextransucrase was about the same for the three sugars at different concentrations (0.6% and 3%). Enzyme produced in glucose medium was adsorbed on Sephadex G-100 and G-200, but much less enzyme was adsorbed when it was produced in sucrose medium. Sephadex adsorption decreased when the glucose-produced enzyme was preincubated with dextrans of molecular size greater than 10 kDa. The release of dextransucrase activity from Sephadex by buffer (20 mM acetate, pH 5.2) was the highest at 28°–30°C. The addition of dextran to the enzyme stimulated dextran synthesis but had very little effect on the temperature or pH stability. Dextransucrase purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation, hydroxyapatite chromatography, and Sephadex G-200 adsorption did not contain any carbohydrate, and it synthesized dextran, showing that primers are not necessary to initiate dextran synthesis. The purified enzyme had a molecular size of 184 kDa on SDS-PAGE. On standing at 4°C for 30 days, the native enzyme was dissociated into three inactive proteins of 65, 62, and 57 kDa. However, two protein bands of 63 and 59 kDa were obtained on SDS-PAGE after heat denaturation of the 184-kDa active enzyme at 100°C. The amount of 63-kDa protein was about twice that of 59-kDa protein. The native enzyme is believed to be a trimer of two 63-kDa and one 59-kDa monomers.     

Bioactive forms of gonadotropin releasing hormone in the brain of an Indian major carp,Catla catla (Ham.)

Two forms of biologically active gonadotropin releasing hormones were isolated from the hypothalami ofCatla catla. Gonadotropin releasing hormone activity was studiedin vitro using enzymatically dispersed carp pituitary cell incubation system. Gonadotropin released into the medium was measured by carp gonadotropin-radio immuno assay. Acetic acid extracted hypothalamic material was subjected to acetone fractionation. Among the three protein pellets obtained at different time periods (ACI, ACII and ACIII), AC II exhibited the gonadotropin releasing hormone activity. Gel filtration of AC II through Sephadex G-25 column showed three protein peaks (SG I, SG II SGIII) and only S G II demonstrated strong gonadotropin releasing hormone activity. Elution of SG II through FPLC Mono Q column (an anion exchanger) in NaCl gradient programme showed one unadsorbed (MQ I) and three adsorbed (MQ II, MQ III and MQ IV) protein peaks. MQ III, which was eluted with 51% NaCl, exhibited gonadotropin releasing hormone activity. Surprisingly, unadsorbed fractions, MQ I, also showed gonadotropin releasing hormone activity. MQ 1 was therefore subjected to FPLC Mono S (a cation exchanger) column chromatography where a highly active gonadotropin releasing hormone enriched peak, i.e., MS III, could be eluted with 45% NaCl. These findings show thatCatla catla hypothalamus has two forms of gonadotropin releasing hormones one anionic (carp gonadotropin releasing hormone I) and another cationic (carp gonadotropin releasing hormone II). These two forms of gonadotropin releasing hormones were also active in heterologous carp species, rohu(Labeo rohita), mrigal(Cirrhinus mrigala) and an exotic common carp(Cyprinus carpio). Combined activity of two forms of gonadotropin releasing hormones was significantly greater as compared to any of the single form.     

Induction of human dendritic cell maturation using transfection with RNA encoding a dominant positive toll-like receptor 4

Maturation of dendritic cells (DC) is critical for the induction of Ag-specific immunity. Ag-loaded DC matured with LPS, which mediates its effects by binding to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), induce Ag-specific CTL in vitro and in vivo in animal models. However, clinical use of LPS is limited due to potential toxicity. Therefore, we sought to mimic the maturation-inducing effects of LPS on DC by stimulating TLR4-mediated signaling in the absence of exogenous LPS. We developed a constitutively active TLR4 (caTLR4) and demonstrated that transfection of human DC with RNA encoding caTLR4 led to IL-12 and TNF-alpha secretion. Transfection with caTLR4 RNA also induced a mature DC phenotype. Functionally, transfection of DC with caTLR4 RNA enhanced allostimulation of CD4(+) T cells. DC transfected with RNA encoding the MART (Melan-A/MART-1) melanoma Ag were then used to stimulate T cells in vitro. Cotransfection of these DC with caTLR4 RNA enhanced the generation of MART-specific CTL. This CTL activity was superior to that seen when DC maturation was induced using either LPS or a standard mixture of cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-1beta, and PGE(2)). We conclude that transfection of DC with RNA encoding a functional signaling protein, such as caTLR4, may provide a new tool for studying TLR signaling in DC and may be a promising approach for the induction of DC maturation for tumor immunotherapy.     

Sustained expression in mammalian cells with DNA complexed with chitosan nanoparticles

This work investigates the preparation and in vitro efficiency of chitosan gene transfection systems. Chitosan was used to prepare nanoparticles with a size range of 40-200 nm as determined using photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) and 40-80 nm as determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The ability of particles to complex DNA was investigated using gel retardation. Plasmid DNA pGL3-Control encoding firefly luciferase and pCH110 encoding beta-galactosidase were used as reporter genes. For transfection 293 human embryonal kidney cells and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells were used. The expression of luciferase was assayed and expressed as relative light units per milligram of protein (RLU/mg protein). Results showed that these chitosan particles have potential as vectors for the transfer of DNA into mammalian cells. Cellular transfection by the chitosan-pGL3-Control particles showed a sustained expression of the luciferase gene for about 10 days. Commercial transfection reagents, SuperFect and Lipofectin were also used. In contrast to chitosan particles, the duration of expression for both SuperFect and Lipofectin was only about 2 days. Agarose gel electrophoresis and displacement experiments using polyaspartic acid indicated a probable multiple interaction between DNA and chitosan whilst the interaction between DNA and the polyamidoamine dendrimer appears to be only ionic interaction. No toxic effect on the mammalian cells was seen with chitosan. SuperFect and Lipofectin however, were observed to engender marked cytotoxicity. Poly-D,L-lactide (PLA) nanoparticles (40-80 nm) and poly-L-lactide (PLLA) lamellae (2-6 microm) were also used to load DNA by an adsorption procedure, but these failed to give good expression data.     

Genetic engineering of protein-peptide fusions for control of protein partitioning in thermoseparating aqueous two-phase systems

Genetic engineering has been used for the fusion of peptides, with different length and composition, on a protein to study the effect on partitioning in aqueous two-phase systems containing thermoseparating polymers. Peptides containing 2-6 tryptophan residues or tryptophan plus 1-3 lysine or aspartate residues, were fused near the C-terminus of the recombinant protein ZZT0, where Z is a synthetic IgG-binding domain derived from domain B in staphylococcal protein A. The partitioning behavior of the peptides and fusion proteins were studied in an aqueous two-phase system composed of dextran and the thermoseparating ethylene oxide-propylene oxide random copolymer, EO30PO70. The zwitterionic compound beta-alanine was used to reduce the charge-dependent salt effects on partitioning, and to evaluate the contribution to the partition coefficient from the amino acid residues, Trp, Lys, and Asp, respectively. Trp was found to direct the fusion proteins to the EO-PO copolymer phase, while Asp and Lys directed them to the dextran phase. The effect of sodium perchlorate and triethylammonium phosphate on the partitioning of the fusion proteins was also studied. Salt effects were directly proportional to the net charge of the fusion proteins. Sodium perchlorate was found to be 3.5 times more effective in directing positively charged proteins to the EO-PO copolymer phase compared to the effect of triethyl ammonium phosphate on negatively charged proteins. An empirical correlation has been tested where the fusion protein partitioning is a result of independent contributions from unmodified protein, fused peptide, and salt effects. A good agreement with experimental data was obtained which indicates the possibility, by independent measurements of partitioning of target protein and fusion peptide, to approximately predict the fusion protein partitioning.