骨样细胞MLO-Y4与成骨样细胞MC3T3-E1生物学特性的比较

分别采用倒置显微镜观察法、细胞计数法、RT-PCR法、磷酸对硝基苯酚法(PNPP法)和ELISA法来比较小鼠骨样细胞MLO-Y4与小鼠成骨样细胞MC3T3-E1的细胞形态、增殖、相关基因的表达和分泌功能的差异。结果显示MC3T3-E1细胞呈长梭形,具有少量短的突触;而MLO-Y4细胞呈星状或树枝状且具有很多长的突触。MC3T3-E1细胞的增殖能力强于MLO-Y4细胞,两者的倍增时间分别是18 h和20 h。MC3T3-E1细胞中原癌基因c-fos和骨桥蛋白基因OPNmRNA的表达明显高于MLO-Y4细胞,而骨钙素基因OCmRNA的表达则是MC3T3-E1细胞远低于MLO-Y4细胞,白细胞分化抗原44基因CD44 mRNA在两种细胞中的表达差异不明显。ALP的分泌在MC3T3-E1细胞中高于MLO-Y4细胞,NO的分泌在两种细胞中没有显著性差异,M-CSF在MLO-Y4细胞中的分泌较高。由此可见骨样细胞MLO-Y4与成骨样细胞MC3T3-E1在形态、ALP和MCSF分泌及c-fos、OPN和OCmRNA表达方面差异明显。     

模拟微重力通过调节AKT磷酸化抑制前成骨细胞的增殖

目的:研究模拟微重力对前成骨细胞的增殖作用及其分子机制。方法:利用2D回转器模拟失重条件培养前成骨细胞MC3T3-E1 24小时;将p-AKT激活剂SC79加入细胞培养基后模拟失重条件下培养前成骨细胞MC3T3-E1 24小时;利用Western blot技术分别检测细胞增殖相关蛋白PCNA以及AKT、p-AKT的表达变化情况。结果:(1)与对照组相比,模拟失重组前成骨细胞增殖受到抑制(P0.01),p-AKT/AKT比值减小(P0.01);(2)加入SC79组与对照组相比,p-AKT/AKT比值显著增加;(3)加入SC79的模拟失重组(MG+SC79)与模拟失重组相比(MG),p-AKT/AKT比值增加,PCNA蛋白表达增加(P0.01),成骨细胞增殖有所恢复。结论:模拟微重力可能通过抑制AKT的磷酸化形式抑制前成骨细胞的增殖,加入p-AKT激活剂可部分恢复前成骨细胞的增殖。     

甲状旁腺激素对成骨细胞中ClC-3 氯通道表达及成骨分化影响的研究

目的:观察甲状旁腺激素(PTH)对成骨细胞中Cl C-3氯通道表达及成骨分化影响,初步探索Cl C-3介导PTH在细胞成骨分化中的作用。方法:采用10-8M、10-9M、10-10M PTH持续刺激和间断刺激MC3T3-E1细胞72 h后,通过CCK-8试剂盒法检测MC3T3-E1细胞的增殖情况,Real-Time PCR法检测MC3T3-E1细胞中Clcn3及成骨相关基因Alp、Runx2的表达情况,免疫荧光法检测10-9M PTH不同给药方式下对Cl C-3蛋白表达的影响。结果 :经不同浓度PTH连续和间断处理72 h后,结果显示10-9 M PTH间断刺激的MC3T3-E1细胞的增殖能力最强,且其Alp、Runx2 m RNA表达均高于10-8 M组和10-10 M组(P<0.05),而相同浓度间断刺激的MC3T3-E1细胞成骨相关基因的表达均高于持续刺激组,以10-9M间断刺激组差异最显著(P<0.05),而10-8 M和10-10M均无统计学差异(P>0.05),10-9 M PTH刺激的MC3T3-E1细胞中Cl C-3蛋白表达也显著增加(P<0.05)。结论 :成骨细胞的Cl C-3氯通道能够响应PTH的刺激发生变化,并伴随着成骨相关基因Alp、Runx2表达的增强。     

牙源性间充质干细胞对成骨前体细胞成骨分化的影响

目的:探讨牙源性间充质干细胞对成骨前体细胞成骨分化的影响.方法:将小鼠成骨前体细胞MC3T3-El分为两组,观察组为牙源性间充质干细胞与MC3T3-E1细胞共培养,对照组为单一MC3T3-E1细胞培养.采用CCK-8法检测细胞增殖水平,采用酶联免疫法检测碱性磷酸酶(Alkaline phosphatase,ALP)活性...     

原子力显微镜技术检测几种骨组织细胞力学性能

为了探究几种骨组织细胞系的力学性能及其与细胞功能的关系,该文采用原子力显微镜压陷法分别检测了前成骨细胞系（2T3和MC3T3-E1）、前骨细胞系（MLO-A5）和骨样细胞系（MLO-Y4）的杨氏模量,利用激光共聚焦显微镜观察了这几种细胞微丝和微管的排布。结果显示,2T3、MC3T3-E1、MLO-A5和MLO-Y4细胞的杨氏模量分别为（7000±2015）Pa、（6600±2024）Pa、（4700±644）Pa和（4500±1622）Pa,与原代骨组织细胞的杨氏模量及变化趋势保持一致,但两种前成骨细胞的杨氏模量要显著高于前骨细胞和骨细胞。细胞荧光染色结果表日月＇前成骨细胞细胞核周围的微丝和微管分布密度要高于前骨细胞和骨细胞,而前骨细胞MLO-A5,尤其是骨细胞MLO-Y4的骨架主要集中于细胞突触和边缘,这可能是导致几种细胞力学性能差异的原因。该研究从生物力学的角度为进一步深入理解骨组织细胞结构与功能的关系提供了实验依据。     

锌协同三羟异黄酮对成骨细胞MC3T3-E1的影响

目的:观察锌协同三羟异黄酮对成骨细胞MC3T3-E1增殖、细胞中碱性磷酸酶(ALP)含量、骨形成蛋白-2(BMP-2)表达的影响,探讨锌协同三羟异黄酮对骨质疏松的防治作用.方法:采用四甲基偶氮噻唑蓝比色法检测(1×10-7)mol/L、(1×10-6)mol/L、(1x 10-5)mol/L、(1×10-4)mol/L的三羟异黄酮以及与(1×10-5)mol/L锌联合作用时对MC3T3-E1增殖的作用;应用Western blot法检测三羟异黄酮与锌联合作用前后,成骨细胞中BMP-2蛋白的表达水平,用比色法检测MC3T3-E1中ALP的含量.结果:锌与三羟异黄酮单独作用或协同作用于MC3T3-E1细胞,其增殖率随着三羟异黄酮浓度的增加和作用时间的延长而升高,(1×10-5)mol/L的三羟异黄酮协同(1×10-5)mol/L的锌作用72h,其细胞增殖率为(160.1±14.3)%.细胞中的LP含量及BMP-2的表达也随着三羟异黄酮浓度的增加及作用时间的延长而增加.三羟异黄酮和锌联合作用后,对ALP活性的增强、BMP-2表达的增加作用均较各自单独作用时更为明显(P＜0.05).结论:三羟异黄酮与锌协同作用表现出雌激素效应,可通过促进骨形成蛋白的合成从而促进成骨细胞的增殖、增加骨量.     

小鼠RNA干扰基因RelA慢病毒载体的构建与鉴定

目的：构建小鼠RelA 基因的RNA 干扰慢病毒载体,转染小鼠成骨样细胞并鉴定。方法：针对小鼠RelA 基因序列,设计特异 性的shRNA 序列,应用基因重组技术插入慢病毒载体GV-248。得到的重组质粒转化感受态大肠杆菌DH5-alpha,筛选得到阳性克隆 并扩大培养。所得质粒进行测序分析确定载体构建成功。重组质粒载体及包装辅助质粒转染293T 细胞,得到目的病毒并测定相 应病毒滴度。慢病毒转染MC3T3-E1 细胞后,Real-time PCR 及Western blot 检测MC3T3-E1 细胞RelA 基因及成骨相关基因 ALP、OCN、RANKL的表达。结果：成功构建小鼠RelA 基因的RNA干扰慢病毒载体,感染MC3T3-E1 细胞后,RelA 基因的表达 明显受到抑制,同时RANKL基因表达水平明显下降,ALP、OCN基因表达水平明显上升。结论：成功构建了小鼠RelA 基因的 RNA 干扰慢病毒载体。当小鼠成骨细胞RelA基因表达被干扰,NF-资B 通路被抑制后,小鼠成骨细胞成骨相关基因ALP、OCN的 表达明显上升,成骨功能增强;同时RANKL 的表达明显下降,其介导的破骨细胞骨吸收功能减弱。     

小鼠RNA干扰RelA基因慢病毒载体的构建与鉴定

目的:构建小鼠Rel A基因的RNA干扰慢病毒载体,转染小鼠成骨样细胞并鉴定。方法:针对小鼠Rel A基因序列,设计特异性的sh RNA序列,应用基因重组技术插入慢病毒载体GV-248。得到的重组质粒转化感受态大肠杆菌DH5α,筛选得到阳性克隆并扩大培养。所得质粒进行测序分析确定载体构建成功。重组质粒载体及包装辅助质粒转染293T细胞,得到目的病毒并测定相应病毒滴度。慢病毒转染MC3T3-E1细胞后,Real-time PCR及Western blot检测MC3T3-E1细胞Rel A基因及成骨相关基因ALP、OCN、RANKL的表达。结果:成功构建小鼠Rel A基因的RNA干扰慢病毒载体,感染MC3T3-E1细胞后,Rel A基因的表达明显受到抑制,同时RANKL基因表达水平明显下降,ALP、OCN基因表达水平明显上升。结论:成功构建了小鼠Rel A基因的RNA干扰慢病毒载体。当小鼠成骨细胞Rel A基因表达被干扰,NF-κB通路被抑制后,小鼠成骨细胞成骨相关基因ALP、OCN的表达明显上升,成骨功能增强;同时RANKL的表达明显下降,其介导的破骨细胞骨吸收功能减弱。     

小鼠前成骨细胞MC3T3-E1在自组装多肽水凝胶支架中的成骨分化

目的研究MC3T3-E1细胞在自组装多肽水凝胶支架上的生长和成骨分化.方法在多肽水凝胶支架RADA16上接种MC3T3-E1细胞,荧光染色观察细胞形态和存活情况;组织化学染色检测MC3T3-E1细胞碱性磷酸酶活性以及细胞外钙质沉积;RT-PCR分析成骨特异性基因的表达.结果 MC3T3-E1细胞在水凝胶支架RADA16上粘附铺展良好,呈纺锤样形态.诱导培养后支架上的细胞有较高水平的碱性磷酸酶表达和矿化基质沉积.此外,骨分化特异性基因骨桥蛋白和骨涎蛋白也有表达,且表达量随培养时间的延长而增多.结论 在自组装水凝胶内MC3T3-E1细胞可向成骨方向分化,并能在凝胶内产生矿化的细胞外基质.     

二维回转培养对MLO-Y4骨样细胞PKD2表达定位 及胞内钙信号的影响

目的：PKD2(polycystin2,多囊肾病蛋白2)能够在细胞膜上形成无选择性的阳离子通道,在肾上皮细胞中PKD2 与初级纤毛 共定位,通过改变胞内的钙信号过程参与细胞对力学刺激的响应。本实验通过二维回转培养来模拟失重效应,旨在探讨二维回转 培养对MLO-Y4 骨样细胞PKD2 表达定位,及胞内钙信号的影响。初步了解PKD2 在小鼠骨样细胞MLO-Y4 响应力学刺激过程 中起的作用。方法：采用二维回转培养骨样细胞MLO-Y4,用RT-PCR和western blotting检测PKD2的表达,用荧光共聚焦显微镜 检测细胞中PKD2 与初级纤毛的定位及细胞内钙离子含量。结果：与对照组相比,在二维回转培养后,骨样细胞MLO-Y4 的PKD2 表达在mRNA和蛋白水平都有明显的下降,PKD2、PKD1(polycystin1,多囊肾病蛋白1)和乙酰化的α-tubulin 共定位,同时二维回 转培养降低了细胞内钙离子含量。结论：在二维回转培养下,PKD2可能通过调节自身表达来改变细胞膜上PKD 通道的数目和开 放情况来影响细胞内钙离子含量,参与骨细胞对细胞外应力的感受过程,其详细机制还有待进一步实验研究。这将对探讨骨细胞 响应力学刺激的具体机制提供重要的理论依据。     

Apoptotic osteocytes regulate osteoclast precursor recruitment and differentiation in vitro

Fatigue loading causes a spatial distribution of osteocyte apoptosis co-localized with bone resorption spaces peaking around microdamage sites. Since osteocytes have been shown to regulate osteoclast formation and activity, we hypothesize that osteocyte apoptosis regulates osteoclastogenesis. In this study, we used serum-starvation to mimic reduced nutrient transport in microdamaged bone and induce apoptosis in MLO-Y4 osteocyte-like cells; conditioned medium was used to apply soluble factors released by apoptotic osteocytes (aOCY) to healthy non-apoptotic MLO-Y4 cells. Osteoclast precursor (RAW264.7 monocyte) migration and differentiation were assessed in the presence of conditioned media (CM) from: (A) aOCY, (B) osteocytes treated with apoptosis conditioned medium (i.e., healthy osteocytes in the presence of apoptosis cues; apoptosis CM-treated osteocytes (atOCY)), and (C) osteocytes treated with non-apoptosis conditioned medium (i.e., healthy osteocytes in the absence of apoptosis cues; non-apoptosis CM-treated osteocytes (natOCY)). Receptor activator for nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) mRNA, and protein expression were measured. Our findings indicate that soluble factors released by aOCY and atOCY promoted osteoclast precursor migration (up to 64% and 24% increase, respectively) and osteoclast formation (up to 450% and 265% increase, respectively). Osteoclast size increased up to 233% in the presence of aOCY and atOCY CM. Recruitment, formation and size were unaltered by natOCY. RANKL mRNA and protein expression were upregulated only in aOCY, while M-CSF and VEGF increased in atOCY. Addition of RANKL-blocking antibody abolished aOCY-induced osteoclast precursor migration and osteoclast formation. VEGF and M-CSF blocking antibodies abolished atOCY-induced osteoclastogenesis. These findings suggest that aOCY directly and indirectly (through atOCY) initiate targeted bone resorption by regulating osteoclast precursor recruitment and differentiation.     

Osteocytes inhibit osteoclastic bone resorption through transforming growth factor-beta: enhancement by estrogen

Osteocytes are the most abundant cells in bone and distributed throughout the bone matrix. They are connected to the each other and to the cells on the bone surface. Thus, they may also secrete some regulatory factors controlling bone remodeling. Using a newly established osteocyte-like cell line MLO-Y4, we have studied the interactions between osteocytes and osteoclasts. We collected the conditioned medium (CM) from MLO-Y4 cells, and added it into the rat osteoclast cultures. The conditioned medium had no effect on osteoclast number in 24-h cultures, but it dramatically inhibited resorption. With 5, 10, and 20% CM, there was 25, 39, and 42% inhibition of resorption, respectively. Interestingly, the inhibitory effect was even more pronounced, when MLO-Y4 cells were pretreated with 10(-8) M 17-beta-estradiol. With 5, 10, and 20% CM, there was 46, 51, and 58% of inhibition. When the conditioned medium was treated with neutralizing antibody against transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), the inhibitory effect was abolished. This suggests that osteocytes secrete significant amounts of TGF-beta, which inhibits bone resorption and is modulated by estrogen. RT-PCR and Western blot analysis show that in MLO-Y4 cells, the prevalent TGF-beta isoform is TGF-beta3. We conclude that osteocytes have an active, inhibitory role in the regulation of bone resorption. Our results further suggest a novel role for TGF-beta in the regulation of communication between different bone cells and suggest that at least part of the antiresorptive effect of estrogen in bone could be mediated via osteocytes.     

Death of osteocytes turns off the inhibition of osteoclasts and triggers local bone resorption

Osteocytes have been suggested to play a role in the regulation of bone resorption, although their effect on bone turnover has remained controversial. In order to study this open question, we developed an organ culture system based on isolated rat calvaria, where the osteocyte viability and its effect on osteoclastic bone resorption can be monitored. Our results suggest that osteocytes are constitutively negative regulators of osteoclastic activity. Osteoclasts, which were cultured on calvarial slices with living osteocytes inside, failed to form actin rings which are the hallmarks of resorbing cells. A similar inhibitory effect was also achieved by the conditioned medium obtained from calvarial organ culture, suggesting that living osteocytes produce yet unrecognized osteoclast inhibitors. On the contrary, when osteocyte apoptosis was induced, this inhibitory effect disappeared and strong osteoclastic bone resorption activity was observed. Thus, local apoptosis of osteocytes may play a major role in triggering local bone remodeling.     

Pulsed electromagnetic fields regulate osteocyte apoptosis,RANKL/OPG expression,and its control of osteoclastogenesis depending on the presence of primary cilia

Growing evidence has shown that pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) can modulate bone metabolism in vivo and regulate the activities of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in vitro. Osteocytes, accounting for 95% of bone cells, act as the major mechanosensors in bone for transducing external mechanical signals and producing cytokines to regulate osteoblastic and osteoclastic activities. Targeting osteocytic signaling pathways is becoming an emerging therapeutic strategy for bone diseases. We herein systematically investigated the changes of osteocyte behaviors, functions, and its regulation on osteoclastogenesis in response to PEMF. The osteocyte-like MLO-Y4 cells were exposed to 15 Hz PEMF stimulation with different intensities (0, 5, and 30 Gauss [G]) for 2 hr. We found that the cell apoptosis and cytoskeleton organization of osteocytes were regulated by PEMF with an intensity-dependent manner. Moreover, PEMF exposure with 5 G significantly inhibited apoptosis-related gene expression and also suppressed the gene and protein expression of the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand/osteoprotegerin (RANKL/OPG) ratio in MLO-Y4 cells. The formation, maturation, and osteoclastic bone-resorption capability of in vitro osteoclasts were significantly suppressed after treated with the conditioned medium from PEMF-exposed (5 G) osteocytes. Our results also revealed that the inhibition of osteoclastic formation, maturation, and bone-resorption capability induced by the conditioned medium from 5 G PEMF-exposed osteocytes was significantly attenuated after abrogating primary cilia in osteocytes using the polaris siRNA transfection. Together, our findings highlight that PEMF with 5 G can inhibit cellular apoptosis, modulate cytoskeletal distribution, and decrease RANKL/OPG expression in osteocytes, and also inhibit osteocyte-mediated osteoclastogenesis, which requires the existence of primary cilia in osteocytes. This study enriches our basic knowledge for further understanding the biological behaviors of osteocytes and is also helpful for providing a more comprehensive mechanistic understanding of the effect of electromagnetic stimulation on bone and relevant skeletal diseases (e.g., bone fracture and osteoporosis).     

Strain uses gap junctions to reverse stimulation of osteoblast proliferation by osteocytes

Identifying mechanisms by which cells of the osteoblastic lineage communicate in vivo is complicated by the mineralised matrix that encases osteocytes, and thus, vital mechanoadaptive processes used to achieve load‐bearing integrity remain unresolved. We have used the coculture of immunomagnetically purified osteocytes and primary osteoblasts from both embryonic chick long bone and calvariae to examine these mechanisms. We exploited the fact that purified osteocytes are postmitotic to examine both their effect on proliferation of primary osteoblasts and the role of gap junctions in such communication. We found that chick long bone osteocytes significantly increased basal proliferation of primary osteoblasts derived from an identical source (tibiotarsi). Using a gap junction inhibitor, 18β‐glycyrrhetinic acid, we also demonstrated that this osteocyte‐related increase in osteoblast proliferation was not reliant on functional gap junctions. In contrast, osteocytes purified from calvarial bone failed to modify basal proliferation of primary osteoblast, but long bone osteocytes preserved their proproliferative action upon calvarial‐derived primary osteoblasts. We also showed that coincubated purified osteocytes exerted a marked inhibitory action on mechanical strain–related increases in proliferation of primary osteoblasts and that this action was abrogated in the presence of a gap junction inhibitor. These data reveal regulatory differences between purified osteocytes derived from functionally distinct bones and provide evidence for 2 mechanisms by which purified osteocytes communicate with primary osteoblasts to coordinate their activity.     

Osteocyte-induced angiogenesis via VEGF–MAPK-dependent pathways in endothelial cells

Recently, it has been suggested osteocytes control the activities of bone formation (osteoblasts) and resorption (osteoclast), indicating their important regulatory role in bone remodelling. However, to date, the role of osteocytes in controlling bone vascularisation remains unknown. Our aim was to investigate the interaction between endothelial cells and osteocytes and to explore the possible molecular mechanisms during angiogenesis. To model osteocyte/endothelial cell interactions, we co-cultured osteocyte cell line (MLOY4) with endothelial cell line (HUVECs). Co-cultures were performed in 1:1 mixture of osteocytes and endothelial cells or by using the conditioned media (CM) transfer method. Real-time cell migration of HUVECs was measured with the transwell migration assay and xCELLigence system. Expression levels of angiogenesis-related genes were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The effect of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and mitogen-activated phosphorylated kinase (MAPK) signaling were monitored by western blotting using relevant antibodies and inhibitors. During the bone formation, it was noted that osteocyte dendritic processes were closely connected to the blood vessels. The CM generated from MLOY4 cells-activated proliferation, migration, tube-like structure formation, and upregulation of angiogenic genes in endothelial cells suggesting that secretory factor(s) from osteocytes could be responsible for angiogenesis. Furthermore, we identified that VEGF secreted from MLOY4-activated VEGFR2–MAPK–ERK-signaling pathways in HUVECs. Inhibiting VEGF and/or MAPK–ERK pathways abrogated osteocyte-mediated angiogenesis in HUVEC cells. Our data suggest an important role of osteocytes in regulating angiogenesis.     

A role for the primary cilium in paracrine signaling between mechanically stimulated osteocytes and mesenchymal stem cells

Bone turnover is a mechanically regulated process, coordinated in part by the network of mechanosensitive osteocytes residing within the tissue. The recruitment and bone forming activity of the mesenchymal derived osteoblast is determined by numerous factors including mechanical loading. It is therefore somewhat surprising that although mechanically regulated signaling between the coordinating osteocytes and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) should exist, to date it has not been directly demonstrated. In this study, conditioned media from mechanically stimulated osteocytes (MLO-Y4 cell line) was collected and added to MSCs (C3H10T1/2 cell line). The addition of mechanically stimulated osteocyte conditioned media resulted in a significant upregulation of the osteogenic genes OPN and COX-2 in MSCs compared to statically cultured conditioned media, demonstrating a novel paracrine signaling mechanism between the two cell types. The same mechanically conditioned media did not alter gene expression in osteoblasts (MC3T3 cell line), and mechanically stimulated osteoblast conditioned media did not alter gene expression in MSCs demonstrating that this signaling is unique to osteocytes and MSCs. Finally, the upregulation in osteogenic genes in MSCs was not observed if primary cilia formation was inhibited prior to mechanical stimulation of the osteocyte. In summary, the results of this study indicate that soluble factors secreted by osteocytes in response to mechanical stimulation can enhance osteogenic gene expression in MSCs demonstrating a novel, unique signaling mechanism and introduces a role for the primary cilium in flow mediated paracrine signaling in bone thereby highlighting the cilium as a potential target for therapeutics aimed at enhancing bone formation.     

Investigation of the regulation of bone mass by mechanical loading: from quantitative cytochemistry to gene array

From the 1860s to the early 1980s, the process that fitted bone architecture and mass to function had been investigated and characterized. It was known that increases in exercise were associated with increased bone mass, and that disuse caused osteopaenia, but the mechanisms by which those processes were regulated was not understood. The idea that osteocytes, the cells embedded in bone, were sensitive to the effects of mechanical loading was attractive, yet there was almost no experimental support for it, at least in part because the cells were considered inaccessible for study. In 1984, the techniques devised by Chayen and his co-workers were focused on this area. By analysis of the activity of the enzyme glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase in osteocytes in sections of avian bone that had been subjected to brief periods of applied mechanical loading, we showed for the first time that osteocytes could respond within a few minutes to mechanical stimulation. The lack of elevation of activity of other glycolytic enzymes led to the conclusion that this elevation was due to increased activity of the pentose shunt pathway, which was likely to be associated with increased production of reducing equivalents for biosynthesis, and ribose sugars for RNA synthesis. This was the first demonstration of an ability of osteocytes to respond to an external mechanical event and in effect provided a mechanistic link for the fundamental principle of what is known as Wolff's law of bone remodelling. These studies were dependent on several technical advances brought together in the Chayen Cellular Biology Laboratory at the Kennedy Institute. The ability to make cryosections of undecalcified bone, to perform cytochemical analysis of (soluble) enzyme activities by use of colloid stabilizers in the reaction medium, and finally to measure accurately the coloured reaction products by microdensitometry (which avoided optical heterogeneity errors) combined to provide a powerful way to explore bone cell function in situ. In the intervening years since then, similar studies have become routine, and the impact of molecular biological advances in hard tissues have remained dependent on techniques pioneered in the Chayen laboratory. During such studies, other advances have spun off, so that osteocyte gene expression has been analysed in samples taken from sections where the precise tissue characteristics were known, leading to advances in understanding of intercellular signalling mechanisms in bone by differential display, and the role of apoptosis in osteocytes in regulation of osteoclastic resorption. Still more recently, materials extracted from undecalcified sections have been used in gene array studies to discover new candidate genes with a role in the adaptive mechanism. Without Joe Chayen's involvement in this area, which now impacts on almost all bone biological science either directly or indirectly, our understanding of the pathophysiology of osteoporosis would have been very different.     

Elimination of senescent osteoclast progenitors has no effect on the age‐associated loss of bone mass in mice

Both an increase in osteoclast and a decrease in osteoblast numbers contribute to skeletal aging. Markers of cellular senescence, including expression of the cyclin inhibitor p16, increase with aging in several bone cell populations. The elimination of p16‐expressing cells in old mice, using the INK‐ATTAC transgene, increases bone mass indicating that senescent cells contribute to skeletal aging. However, the identity of the senescent cells and the extent to which ablation of p16‐expressing cells may prevent skeletal aging remain unknown. Using mice expressing the p16‐3MR transgene, we examined whether elimination of p16‐expressing cells between 12 and 24 months of age could preserve bone mass; and whether elimination of these cells from 20 to 26 months of age could restore bone mass. The activation of the p16‐3MR transgene by ganciclovir (GCV) greatly diminished p16 levels in the brain, liver, and osteoclast progenitors from the bone marrow. The age‐related increase in osteoclastogenic potential of myeloid cells was also abrogated by GCV. However, GCV did not alter p16 levels in osteocytes—the most abundant cell type in bone—and had no effect on the skeletal aging of p16‐3MR mice. These findings indicate that the p16‐3MR transgene does not eliminate senescent osteocytes but it does eliminate senescent osteoclast progenitors and senescent cells in other tissues, as described previously. Elimination of senescent osteoclast progenitors, in and of itself, has no effect on the age‐related loss of bone mass. Hence, other senescent cell types, such as osteocytes, must be the seminal culprits.     

Matrix metalloproteinase-dependent activation of latent transforming growth factor-beta controls the conversion of osteoblasts into osteocytes by blocking osteoblast apoptosis

Upon termination of bone matrix synthesis, osteoblasts either undergo apoptosis or differentiate into osteocytes or bone lining cells. In this study, we investigated the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and growth factors in the differentiation of osteoblasts into osteocytes and in osteoblast apoptosis. The mouse osteoblast cell line MC3T3-E1 and primary mouse calvarial osteoblasts were either grown on two-dimensional (2-D) collagen-coated surfaces, where they morphologically resemble flattened, cuboidal bone lining cells, or embedded in three-dimensional (3-D) collagen gels, where they resemble dendritic osteocytes constituting a network of cells. When MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts were grown in a 3-D matrix in the presence of an MMP inhibitor (GM6001), the cell number was dose-dependently reduced by approximately 50%, whereas no effect was observed on a 2-D substratum. In contrast, the murine mature osteocyte cell line, MLO-Y4, was unaffected by GM6001 under all culture conditions. According to TUNEL assay, the osteoblast apoptosis was increased 2.5-fold by 10 microm GM6001. To investigate the mechanism by which MMPs mediate the survival of osteoblasts, we examined the effect of GM6001 on MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts in the presence of extracellular matrix components and growth factors, including tenascin, fibronectin, laminin, collagenase-cleaved collagen, gelatin, parathyroid hormone, basic fibroblast growth factor, vascular epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, interleukin-1, and latent and active transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). Only active TGF-beta, but not latent TGF-beta or other agents tested, restored cell number and apoptosis to control levels. Furthermore, we found that the membrane type MMP, MT1-MMP, which is produced by osteoblasts, could activate latent TGF-beta and that antibodies neutralizing endogenous TGF-beta led to a similar decrease in cell number as GM6001. Whereas inhibitors of other protease families did not induce osteoblast apoptosis, an inhibitor of the p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase showed the same but non-synergetic effect as GM6001. These findings suggest that MMP-activated TGF-beta maintains osteoblast survival during trans-differentiation into osteocytes by a p44/42-dependent pathway.