ESTIMATING BODY LENGTH OF PYGMY RIGHT WHALES (CAPEREA MARGINATA) FROM MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKELETON AND BALEEN

Various parts of the skeleton and/or the longest baleen plate of 46 specimens of Caperea marginata from Australia and New Zealand were measured and related to body length. Of the 32 skull, postcranial and baleen-plate measurements available, eight were analysed and seven found to be good predictors of body length, by using a curvilinear model describing their relationship with body length. Greatest skull width, supraoccipital length and mandible length had the smallest prediction limits (± 0.28-0.33 m in small animals, ±0.44-0.58 m in large animals) when compared with postcranial measurements (scapula length, vertebra 7 centrum width). Baleen-plate length was also a useful predictor of body length (±0.32-0.77 m). There was a substantial increase in the arch of the skull as body length increased. Bulla length was not a good predictor of body length, because measurements were highly variable and because the bulla grew little during postnatal life. Physical maturity occurred at body lengths of at least 5.9 m, also the shortest length at which both epiphyses of the humerus and proximal epiphyses of the radius and ulna were fused. Weaning appears to occur at about 3-3.5 m. The following approximate relative age/length classes were erected: dependent calves, <3.6 m; subadults, 3.6-5.5 m; adults, >5.5 m. Females were significantly longer than males in the sample of 22 animals greater than 5.9 m, length of the smallest recorded physically mature animal.     

Non-invasive methods of separating hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) age classes and an investigation into the age structure of road kill

The separation of animals into age classes is often fraught with difficulties, but is essential for the interpretation of survival rates and population structure. This study investigated both live hedgehogs and road kill in order to develop techniques that could be utilised to separate age classes in the field. Body measurements were taken from 24 live hedgehogs caught at a site in County Cork, Ireland over a three year period. Additionally, carcasses from around Ireland were collected and measured. There was a significant correlation between the weight and hind foot length of both live and dead hedgehogs. The weight of individuals was also significantly correlated with the body length and jaw length of hedgehogs. In all of these correlations, the sample clustered clearly into two groups with ‘juveniles’ meeting all of the following criteria: a hind foot length of <3.6 cm, a body length of <?16 cm and a jaw length of below 4.5 cm. It is suggested that these parameters, combined with the presence of growing spines, could provide a way of separating age classes in the field. This would be of particular benefit to short term studies, allowing the population structure to be accurately assessed and the reproductive success and sustainability of a population to be investigated. Road kill were also aged using the dentary bone in order to investigate the age profiles of hedgehogs killed on the road. Amongst those killed, 54 % of hedgehogs were 1-year-old or less. The majority of hedgehogs (87 %) were between 0–3-years-old, the oldest females were nine (n?=?2), and the oldest males were eight years old (n?=?2), respectively. Road kill hedgehogs had an average longevity of 1.94 years, and the mean age of females was higher (2.10 years) than males (1.87 years).     

Body size and craniometry of the herb field mouse from Lithuania in the context of species range

We present morphometric and craniometric measurements of the herb field mouse (Apodemus uralensis) from Lithuania and analyze variation of body and skull size across species range. We suppose species is characterized by high size variability, not following Bergmann’s or Murphy’s rules. Preliminary, distinct size differences have been registered in the eastern and southern edges of the distribution range, with these populations having largest individuals according to average body and skull size. In terms of tail length and condylobasal length of the skull, Lithuanian mice on the north-western edge of the species range are among the largest, but in terms of body weight, body length, zygomatic skull width and the length of maxillary toothrow, adult A. uralensis from Lithuania are small and correspond to those from populations on the western edge of the range. The relative skull width (ratio of zygomatic skull width to condylobasal length) of Lithuanian A. uralensis is the smallest across the entire range. In A. uralensis from Lithuania, sex dimorphism is weakly expressed, with hind foot length and postorbital constriction larger in adult males, while the height of the mandibula and length of the mandibular diastema is larger in adult females. Juvenile and subadult A. uralensis from Lithuania differ in body weight, but not in size.     

Estimating body size of fossil sirenians

Estimates of fossil sirenian body size are important for understanding niche partitioning among possibly sympatric species. Because of the paucity of complete fossil skeletons, we explored the utility of three morphometric predictors of body size: (condylobasal skull length [BSL]; occipital condyle width [OCW]; and foramen magnum width [FMW]) in extant sirenians—Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) and dugongs (Dugong dugon)—and then applied these to obtain estimates of body size in extinct sirenian taxa. Condylobasal length of the skull is a more accurate predictor of body size in extant Florida manatees and dugongs than are width of the occipital condyles or width of the foramen magnum. Body length (BL) is predicted more accurately than is body weight (BW) for all three morphometric predictors. For our sample of fossil sirenians, BSL, OCW, and FMW were used to generate predicted BLs and BWs. Preliminary assessments of fossil sirenian faunas from Florida and India suggest that body mass could have been one of several possible important morphological parameters accounting for feeding niche separation.     

Relationship between body mass, brain mass and craniometric parameters in the miniature pig Mini-Lewe

The relations between skull measurements, brain mass, and body mass were investigated in 30 female miniature pigs, being 6 month old. The relatively low correlation coefficients between the variables indicate a high variability in skull shape. We found an allometric exponent of 0.236 for the relation between brain and body mass with a coefficient of determination of 0.29. Both measurements show a highest correlation with the arcus zygomaticus width, which shows close relations with the occipital height and condylobasal length.     

Static intraspecific allometry of the dentition in Otoletnur crassicaudatus

Adult static intraspecific allometry of tooth size was evaluated in a sample of 66 Otolemur crassicaudatus (34 male, 32 female). Tooth areas were calculated from mesiodistal and buccolingual measurements of canines and postcanine teeth of both arcades and were scaled to four viscerocranial measurements: bimaxillary width; maxillo-alveolar length; mandibular length and bigonial width. Individual tooth crown areas were also scaled to total skull length, body length and body weight. From the log-transformed analyses it is concluded that postcanine tooth size was unrelated to body length or weight, and poorly correlated to skull length or jaw size. Although viscerocranial size appears to be independent of body size, these measures are well correlated to skull length. It is shown that the longer the skull, the shorter and narrower the maxilla, and the longer and broader the mandible. Canines are shown to scale negatively allometric to skull length, hence, large animals will have relatively small canines.     

Morphometric variation of the skull during postnatal development in the Lowland European bisonBison bonasus bonasus

We studied the variation of linear measurements and skull capacity in Lowland European bisonBison bonasus bonasus (Linnaeus, 1758) during postnatal development, and the dependencies of the parameters in relation to sex, age, and body mass of the animals. Material consisted of 599 bison skulls (310 males and 289 females), within the age range of 1 month to 21 years (males) and to 27 years (females). In the group of calves to 1 year old, no sex connected differences in skull measurements were observed, whereas the skull capacity in older calves was significantly larger (0.01>p>0.001) in males than in females. From the third year of life, most skull measurements display characteristics of sexual dimorphism. Skull development in both sexes is most intensive during the first three years of life, and slows from the age of 5. In older individuals of both sexes (≥ 6 years), orbital breadth continues growing and, in females, breadth of splanchnocranium continues increasing. Growth in a bison’s skull capacity is most intensive up to the third year of life and slows from the age of 5. During postnatal development, a bison skull grows proportionally except the neurocranium, which grows slightly slower in comparison with basal length and its development finishes earlier than that of splanchnocranium. In ontogenesis, a bison skull grows much slower compared to body mass. In relation to body mass, skull capacity and the height of neurocranium grow most slowly while orbital breadth grows most intensively. The results obtained were compared with data on skull sizes of bison born in 1930–1950 and bred in captivity and with skulls of the American bisonBison bison. Inbreeding is probably responsible for some types of phenotypic abnormalities in the skull which appear in modern European bison.     

Description of Choleoeimeria duszynskii n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from the gallbladder of the Middle Eastern short-fingered gecko Stenodactylus doriae (Blanford) (Sauria: Gekkonidae) in Saudi Arabia

Choleoeimeria duszynskii n. sp. is described from the gallbladder of the Middle Eastern short-fingered gecko Stenodactylus doriae (Blanford) from Salasel, Central region, Saudi Arabia. Oöcysts are ellipsoidal (rarely ovoidal), 23–25 × 16–18 (24 × 17) μm, with mean length/width ratio 1.4. Oöcyst wall is smooth, bi-layered, c.1.0 μm thick. Micropyle, oöcyst residuum and polar granule are absent. Sporocysts are ellipsoidal, 8–10 × 4–6 (9 × 5) μm, with a smooth, colourless sporocyst wall and mean length/width ratio 1.7. Sporozoites are sausage-shaped, with one end slightly pointed, arranged head to tail around sporocyst residuum. Refractile bodies and nuclei are not discernible. The endogenous development is restricted to the epithelium of the gallbladder and bile duct. Meronts are rounded, 12 μm in diameter, containing up to c.15 merozoites. Microgamonts are irregular in shape, 22 × 17 μm, containing a large number of microgametes. Macrogamonts are spherical, 17 μm in diameter, with centrally located nucleus and wall-forming bodies at the periphery.     

Body build classes as a method for systematization of age-related anthropometric changes in girls aged 7-8 and 17-18 years

A total of 462 schoolgirls aged 7-8 and 17-18 years were examined anthropometrically (45 body measurements and 10 skinfolds) in a cross-sectional study. The data were processed in two age groups: 7-8-year-olds (n = 205) and 17-18-year-olds (n = 257). Relying on average height and weight in the groups, both groups were divided into five body build classes: small, medium, large, pyknomorphous and leptomorphous. In these classes, the differences in all other body measurements were compared, and in both age groups, analogous systematic differences were found in length, width and depth measurements and circumferences. This enabled us to compare proportional changes in body measurements during ten years, using for this ratios of averages of basic measurements and measurement groups in the same body build classes. Statistical analysis by the sign test revealed statistically significant differences between various body build classes in the growth of averages. Girls belonging to the small class differed from the girls of the large class by an essentially greater increase in their measurements. Our results suggest that the growth rate of body measurements of girls with different body build can be studied by the help of body build classification.     

Fine-scale spatial age segregation in the limited foraging area of an inshore seabird species,the little penguin

Competition for food resources can result in spatial and dietary segregation among individuals from the same species. Few studies have looked at such segregations with the combined effect of sex and age in species with short foraging ranges. In this study we examined the 3D spatial use of the environment in a species with a limited foraging area. We equipped 26 little penguins (Eudyptula minor) of known age, sex, and breeding output with GPS (location) and accelerometer (body acceleration and dive depth) loggers. We obtained dietary niche information from the isotopic analysis of blood tissue. We controlled for confounding factors of foraging trip length and food availability by sampling adults at guard stage when parents usually make one-day trips. We observed a spatial segregation between old (>11 years old) and middle-aged penguins (between 5 and 11 years old) in the foraging area. Old penguins foraged closer to the shore, in shallower water. Despite observing age-specific spatial segregation, we found no differences in the diving effort and foraging efficiency between age classes and sexes. Birds appeared to target similar prey types, but showed age-specific variation in their isotopic niche width. We hypothesize that this age-specific segregation was primarily determined by a “cohort effect” that would lead individuals sharing a common life history (i.e. having fledged and dispersed around the same age) to forage preferentially together or to share similar foraging limitations.     

Effects of shell morphological traits on the weight trait of the orange strain of the Manila clam

A new strain of Manila clam with orange shell color was produced after selection within a full-sib family for two generations. In the present study, the shell length, height, and width, and the live body weight of the orange strain were measured, and their correlation coefficients were calculated. The shell morphological traits were used as independent variables, and the live body weight was used as the dependent variable for calculating the path coefficients, correlation index, and determination coefficients. The results showed that the correlation coefficients between each shell morphological trait and the live body weight were all highly significant (P < 0.01). The correlation indices (R²) of morphological traits against the live body weight of clams were larger than 0.85, indicating that the morphology traits were the main factors affecting the body weight. Multiple regression equations were obtained to estimate shell length X₁ (cm), shell height X₂ (cm), and shell width X₃ (cm) against live body weight Y (g): Y = ? 2.62 + 0.34 X₁ + 0.145 X₂, (X₁ < 0.05, X₂ < 0.05). The results suggest that the shell length could be used as the main trait for selective breeding and could indirectly make a large improvement in the weight trait.     

Age inTayassu pecari according to dental eruption

The determination of the age composition of a population is considered to be a fundamental parameter for the analysis of life-history strategy of the species. In the Tayassuidae, the determination of relative age has been primarily based on molar tooth wear, sometimes combined with other external characteristics, such as hair color or body size. The present study examined the dental composition of white-lipped peccariesTayassu pecari (Link, 1795) . Through the determination of the erupted dental pattern and its relation to the body weight of the animal, six age classes were established. The presence of molar teeth was considered the most accurate parameter for establishing age classes for white-lipped peccaries.     

Validated age and growth estimates for the shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, in the North Atlantic Ocean

Age and growth estimates for the shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, derived from vertebral centra of 258 specimens (118 males, 140 females), ranging in size from 64 to 340 cm fork length (FL) were compared with data from 22 tag–recaptured individuals (74–193 cm FL) and length–frequency data from 1822 individuals (1035 males, 787 females; 65–215 cm FL). Annual band-pair deposition, confirmed by a concurrent bomb radiocarbon validation study, was used as the basis for band interpretation. Validation was further confirmed with a tetracycline-injected male shortfin mako recaptured after being at liberty off South Africa for 1 year and aged at 18 years. Growth rates from tag–recapture analysis (GROTAG) were higher than those derived from vertebral annuli and were only available from sharks up to 193 cm FL at recapture. Modal length–frequency data were used to verify the first four age classes. Growth curves were fit using both von Bertalanffy and Gompertz models. The 3-parameter version of the von Bertalanffy growth function produced the most biologically reasonable values for males, based on observed data (L _∞  = 253 cm FL, K = 0.125 year^?1 (estimated longevity = 21 year), and L ₀ = 72 cm). The 3-parameter version of the Gompertz growth function produced the most biologically reasonable estimates, for females (L _∞  = 366 cm FL, K = 0.087 year^?1 (estimated longevity = 38 year) and L ₀ = 88 cm. Males and females were aged to 29 (260 cm FL) and 32 years (335 cm FL), respectively. Both sexes grew similarly to age 11 (207 cm FL, 212 cm FL for males and females, respectively) when the curve leveled in males and continued to rise in females. Age at 50% maturity was estimated at 8 years for males (185 cm FL) and 18 years for females (275 cm FL). The species grows slower, matures later and has a longer life span than previously reported in North Atlantic waters.     

Growth of female southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina at Macquarie Island

Body growth of 137 female southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) over 1 year of age was investigated at subantarctic Macquarie Island. An asymptotic straight line, snout–tail body length of 2.57±0.03 m was estimated to be attained at 9 years of age, using a three-parameter Gompertz equation. A significant increase of approximately 0.1 m (5%) in mean body length of females between 1 and 10 years of age was estimated to have occurred between the 1950–1960s and 1990s at Macquarie Island. This is consistent with a reduction in both the rate of population decline and the age of onset of sexual maturity. Age determination using dental cementum layers and the importance of standardised measurements in pinniped growth studies are discussed.     

Fecal pellet measurements of manipur brow-antlered deer with respect to sex and age classes

Measurements were made of fecal pellets for captive brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) from different age and sex classes. Pellet measurements increased linearly with increases in age, except for length and width measurements in males. Differences in dimensions were statistically significant between sexes and among some age classes. This procedure may be useful in differentiating between the sexes, and to some extent between ages, of wild-living individuals. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Descriptions of Three New Longidorus Species from Slovakia (Nemata: Longidoridae)

Three new Longidorus species from Slovakia are described. Longidorus carpathicus n. sp. most closely resembles Longidorus silvae but differs by having a longer odontostyle, odontophore, and total stylet; smaller a and c ratios; and longer distance to the guide ring. This new species also resembles L. picenus, L. macrosoma, and L. major but differs by having a narrower lip width. It further differs from L. picenus by having a longer odontostyle and smaller c ratio, and by lacking males; from L. macrosoma by having a longer odontostyle, smaller c ratio, by lacking males, and a more pronounced J1 tail peg; and from L. major by having a shorter body length, longer odontostyle, longer odontophore, and longer J1 tail peg. Longidorus piceicola n. sp. most closely resembles L. eridanicus, from which it differs by having a greater lip width, longer tail, smaller c ratio, larger c'' ratio, shorter hyaline tail length, and a conically rounded vs. hemispherical tail. This new species differs from L. cylindricaudatus by having a larger lip width, longer odontostyle and odontophore, and a greater distance to the guide ring; from L. nevesi by having a shorter body length, longer odontostyle, larger c'' ratio, and shorter hyaline tail length. Longidorus juglansicola n. sp. most closely resembles L. athesinus but differs by its longer body, wider lips, and larger a and c ratios. It closely resembles L. vineacola but differs by its shorter body length, smaller c ratio, and an almost parallel lip outline vs. an expanded lip outline; from L. lusitanicus by a longer odontophore and tail, and an almost parallel lip outline vs. an expanded lip outline.     

Variation of the number of proximal caudal vertebrae with tail reduction in Old World monkeys

Tail length in primates can vary greatly between species or even between local conspecific populations, and the tail is markedly reduced in several lineages. In Old World monkeys, tail length is considered as an important feature reflecting their phylogeny and adaptations. The number of caudal vertebrae is one of the important factors which determine tail length, and it is known that this number varies with tail length. Caudal vertebrae can be divided into two types (proximal and distal), and tail mobility and function are considered to be different in these two regions. Though the number of vertebrae in each region is important for understanding tail length evolution in Old World monkeys, there have been few attempts to investigate this matter. This study focused only on the proximal caudal vertebrae, which are more easily preserved than the distal ones, and tested if there is variation in their number with tail length or phylogenic differences. As a result, two important findings were obtained: (1) the variation of the number of proximal caudal vertebrae was different among the phylogenic groups, and (2) especially in Papionini, there was a great variation in the number of proximal caudal vertebrae, and it correlated strongly with relative tail length [RTL = (tail length/head and body length (sitting height)) × 100 %]. I speculate that these variations in the number of proximal caudal vertebrae were possibly caused by a change of the embryonic developmental mechanism of tail morphogenesis, a common mechanism of morphological evolution. To clarify the mechanisms and evolutionary trends of the variation in the proximal caudal vertebrae, not only morphological approaches but also developmental biological approaches will be necessary in the future.     

突变体——侏儒小鼠(dw~t)与津白3(TA3)不同日龄骨骼、体重及体长的比较

侏儒小鼠与津白3体重的比值为1:2.5。它们的骨骼、休重、休长及尾长的测量均具非常显著或显著意义。经均衡性检验,不同日龄、不同性别间TA3/dw~t小鼠的不同骨骼、体重、体长及尾长的比值变化是均匀一致的。证明侏儒小鼠骨骼、体重、体长及尾长均系均匀缩小,是身体各部分匀称的侏儒小鼠。     

First assessment of the population structure of the Asiatic wild ass in Mongolia

The Mongolian Gobi is the most important stronghold of the Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus), housing >?75% of the remaining global population. However, even in this remote refuge, poaching and changes in land use are challenging the species’ conservation. Whereas progress has been made in monitoring population size, little data are available on population structure and dynamics. To fill this gap, we determined the age and sex of 440 skulls collected in two regions of the Mongolian Gobi. Foals and yearlings were underrepresented in our skull sample with 3 and 7.3% only, but the rest of the age pyramid was well balanced. The mean age was 7.7 years, the maximum age 29 years, and the sex ratio was not different from even. Mortality risk analysis revealed low annual mortality rates of about 15% in the most productive age classes of 5–10 years, followed by a slow increase with age until about 17 years and a likely faster increase thereafter. As the large majority of carcasses suggested a poaching-related mortality which appears random, our dataset provides the first insight into the structure of the largest remaining Asiatic wild ass population and can be used as a benchmark for future monitoring and population viability modeling.