Anticonvulsant drug mechanisms of action

The effects of clinically used anticonvulsant drugs on high-frequency sustained repetitive firing (SRF) of action potentials and on postsynaptic responses to iontophoretically applied gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) have been compared to establish a classification of anticonvulsant drugs based on cellular mechanisms of action. By using concentrations in the range of therapeutic cerebrospinal fluid values in humans, drugs have been separated into three categories: Phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproic acid limited SRF, but did not alter GABA responses. Phenobarbital, clonazepam, and diazepam augmented GABA responses and limited SRF only at concentrations above the therapeutic range in ambulatory patients but that are achieved in the acute treatment of status epilepticus. Ethosuximide failed to affect SRF or GABA responses even at supratherapeutic concentrations. Ability of an anticonvulsant to limit SRF correlated well with efficacy against generalized tonic-clonic seizures clinically and against maximal electroshock seizures in experimental animals. Augmentation of GABA responses and lack of limitation of SRF correlated with efficacy against generalized absence seizures in humans and against pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures in animals. However, ethosuximide must act against generalized absence seizures and against pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures by a third, as yet unknown, mechanism. Other actions occurring at supratherapeutic concentrations correlated with clinical toxicity.     

Effects of Levetiracetam,Carbamazepine, Phenytoin,Valproate, Lamotrigine,Oxcarbazepine, Topiramate,Vinpocetine and Sertraline on Presynaptic Hippocampal Na<Superscript>+</Superscript> and Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript> Channels Permeability

Ion channels are targets of various antiepileptic drugs. In cerebral presynaptic nerve endings Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels are particularly abundant, as they control neurotransmitter release, including the release of glutamate (Glu), the most concentrated excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter in the brain. Several pre-synaptic channels are implicated in the mechanism of action of the pro-convulsive agent, 4-aminopyridine (4-AP). In the present study the effects of levetiracetam and other established and newer (vinpocetine) anti-epileptic drugs, as well as of the anti-depressant, sertraline on the increase in Ca²⁺ induced by 4-AP in hippocampal isolated nerve endings were investigated. Also the effects of some of the anti-seizure drugs on the selective increase in Ca²⁺ induced by high K⁺, or on the selective increase in Na⁺ induced by veratridine were tested. Sertraline and vinpocetine effectively inhibited the rise in Ca²⁺ induced by 4-AP, which was dependent on the out-in Na⁺ gradient and tetrodotoxin sensitive. Carbamazepine, phenytoin, lamotrigine and oxcarbazepine inhibited the rise in Ca²⁺ induced by 4-AP too, but at higher concentrations than sertraline and vinpocetine, whereas levetiracetam, valproic acid and topiramate did not. The three latter antiepileptic drugs also failed in modifying other responses mediated by the activation of brain presynaptic Na⁺ or Ca²⁺ channels, including Glu release. This indicates that levetiracetam, valproic acid and topiramate mechanisms of action are unrelated with a decrease in presynaptic Na⁺ or Ca²⁺ channels permeability. It is concluded that depolarized cerebral isolated nerve endings represent a useful tool to unmask potential antiepileptic drugs targeting presynaptic Na⁺ and/or Ca²⁺ channels in the brain; such as vinpocetine or the anti-depressant sertraline, which high effectiveness to control seizures in the animal in vivo has been demonstrated.     

New In Vitro Phenotypic Assay for Epilepsy: Fluorescent Measurement of Synchronized Neuronal Calcium Oscillations

Research in the epilepsy field is moving from a primary focus on controlling seizures to addressing disease pathophysiology. This requires the adoption of resource- and time-consuming animal models of chronic epilepsy which are no longer able to sustain the testing of even moderate numbers of compounds. Therefore, new in vitro functional assays of epilepsy are needed that are able to provide a medium throughput while still preserving sufficient biological context to allow for the identification of compounds with new modes of action. Here we describe a robust and simple fluorescence-based calcium assay to measure epileptiform network activity using rat primary cortical cultures in a 96-well format. The assay measures synchronized intracellular calcium oscillations occurring in the population of primary neurons and is amenable to medium throughput screening. We have adapted this assay format to the low magnesium and the 4-aminopyridine epilepsy models and confirmed the contribution of voltage-gated ion channels and AMPA, NMDA and GABA receptors to epileptiform activity in both models. We have also evaluated its translatability using a panel of antiepileptic drugs with a variety of modes of action. Given its throughput and translatability, the calcium oscillations assay bridges the gap between simplified target-based screenings and compound testing in animal models of epilepsy. This phenotypic assay also has the potential to be used directly as a functional screen to help identify novel antiepileptic compounds with new modes of action, as well as pathways with previously unknown contribution to disease pathophysiology.     

Effect of GABA-acting drugs diazepam and sodium valproate on thermoregulation in rats

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is involved in the mechanism of action of many drugs affecting different functions in the central nervous system. The present study has investigated the effect of diazepam, a positive allosteric GABA_A receptor modulator, and sodium valproate, a GABA transaminase inhibitor, on thermoregulation in rats. The experiments were designed into two main parts: (1) in vivo experiments on body temperature of conscious rats; (2) in vitro experiments on temperature sensitivity (temperature coefficient, TC) of rat PO/AH neurons in slice preparations. Central (i.c.v.) or systemic (i.p.) administration of diazepam, as well as sodium valproate produced dose-dependent hypothermia in rats. Both GABAergic drugs diazepam and sodium valproate increased temperature sensitivity (TC) in warm-sensitive rat PO/AH neurons. These results are in agreement with the neuronal model of temperature regulation and confirm the involvement of GABAergic mechanisms in thermoregulation.     

Mechanisms of action of valproate: a commentatory

Valproate, one of the major antiepileptic drugs used today, has besides its wide use in both generalized and partial epilepsies, several new approved indications including the treatment of bipolar disorders, neuropathic pain, and as a migraine prophylaxis. This wide spectrum of activities is reflected by several different mechanisms of action, which are discussed in this review.With regard to the antiepileptic effect of VPA, a special emphasis is put on the effect on the GABAergic system and the effect on enzymes like succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSA-DH), GABA transaminase (GABA-T), and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, related to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and thereby cerebral metabolism. In vitro studies have shown that VPA is a potent inhibitor of SSA-DH. In brain homogenates, GABA-T is inhibited at high concentrations only. Besides affecting the GABA-shunt, VPA might also inhibit the TCA cycle at the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase step.The effect of VPA on excitatory neurotransmission and on excitatory membranes are mechanisms likely to be responsible for the 'mood-stabilizing' effect as well as in the treatment of migraine. GABA-mediated responses may be involved in neuropathic pain. But still there are many aspects of the mechanisms of action of VPA that remain unknown.     

Advances in establishment and analysis of three-dimensional tumor spheroid-based functional assays for target validation and drug evaluation

Background

Glutamate and ??-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporters play important roles in balancing excitatory and inhibitory signals in the brain. Increasing evidence suggest that they may act concertedly to regulate extracellular levels of the neurotransmitters.

Results

Here we present evidence that glutamate uptake-induced release of GABA from astrocytes has a direct impact on the excitability of pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus. We demonstrate that GABA, synthesized from the polyamine putrescine, is released from astrocytes by the reverse action of glial GABA transporter (GAT) subtypes GAT-2 or GAT-3. GABA release can be prevented by blocking glutamate uptake with the non-transportable inhibitor DHK, confirming that it is the glutamate transporter activity that triggers the reversal of GABA transporters, conceivably by elevating the intracellular Na⁺ concentration in astrocytes. The released GABA significantly contributes to the tonic inhibition of neurons in a network activity-dependent manner. Blockade of the Glu/GABA exchange mechanism increases the duration of seizure-like events in the low-[Mg²⁺] in vitro model of epilepsy. Under in vivo conditions the increased GABA release modulates the power of gamma range oscillation in the CA1 region, suggesting that the Glu/GABA exchange mechanism is also functioning in the intact hippocampus under physiological conditions.

Conclusions

The results suggest the existence of a novel molecular mechanism by which astrocytes transform glutamatergic excitation into GABAergic inhibition providing an adjustable, in situ negative feedback on the excitability of neurons.     

Effect of the Anti-depressant Sertraline,the Novel Anti-seizure Drug Vinpocetine and Several Conventional Antiepileptic Drugs on the Epileptiform EEG Activity Induced by 4-Aminopyridine

Seizures are accompanied by an exacerbated activation of cerebral ion channels. 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) is a pro-convulsive agent which mechanism of action involves activation of Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels, and several antiepileptic drugs control seizures by reducing these channels permeability. The antidepressant, sertraline, and the anti-seizure drug vinpocetine are effective inhibitors of cerebral presynaptic Na⁺ channels. Here the effectiveness of these compounds to prevent the epileptiform EEG activity induced by 4-AP was compared with the effectiveness of seven conventional antiepileptic drugs. For this purpose, EEG recordings before and at three intervals within the next 30 min following 4-AP (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.) were taken in anesthetized animals; and the EEG-highest peak amplitude values (HPAV) calculated. In control animals, the marked increase in the EEG-HPAV observed near 20 min following 4-AP reached its maximum at 30 min. Results show that this epileptiform EEG activity induced by 4-AP is prevented by sertraline and vinpocetine at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg, and by carbamazepine, phenytoin, lamotrigine and oxcarbazepine at a higher dose (25 mg/kg). In contrast, topiramate (25 mg/kg), valproate (100 mg/kg) and levetiracetam (100 mg/kg) failed to prevent the epileptiform EEG activity induced by 4-AP. It is concluded that 4-AP is a useful tool to elicit the mechanism of action of anti-seizure drugs at clinical meaningful doses. The particular efficacy of sertraline and vinpocetine to prevent seizures induced by 4-AP is explained by their high effectiveness to reduce brain presynaptic Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels permeability.     

Mechanisms of Action of Carbamazepine and Its Derivatives,Oxcarbazepine, BIA 2-093, and BIA 2-024

Carbamazepine (CBZ) has been extensively used in the treatment of epilepsy, as well as in the treatment of neuropathic pain and affective disorders. However, the mechanisms of action of this drug are not completely elucidated and are still a matter of debate. Since CBZ is not very effective in some epileptic patients and may cause several adverse effects, several antiepileptic drugs have been developed by structural variation of CBZ, such as oxcarbazepine (OXC), which is used in the treatment of epilepsy since 1990. (S)-(–)-10-acetoxy-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenz[b,f]azepine-5-carboxamide (BIA 2-093) and 10,11-dihydro-10-hydroxyimino-5H-dibenz[b,f]azepine-5-carboxamide (BIA 2-024), which were recently developed by BIAL, are new putative antiepileptic drugs, with some improved properties. In this review, we will focus on the mechanisms of action of CBZ and its derivatives, OXC, BIA 2-093 and BIA 2-024. The available data indicate that the anticonvulsant efficacy of these AEDs is mainly due to the inhibition of sodium channel activity.     

Synchrotron X-ray microbeams: A promising tool for drug-resistant epilepsy treatment

Epilepsy is one of the most important neurological diseases. It concerns about 1% of the population worldwide. Despite the discovery of new molecules, one third of epileptic patients are resistant to anti-epileptic drugs and among them only a few can benefit from resective surgery. In this context, radiotherapy is an interesting alternative to the other treatments and several clinical devices exist (e.g., Gamma Knife^®). The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility offers the possibility to develop new methods of radiosurgery and to study their antiepileptic effects. Here, we discuss several studies that we performed recently to test and try to understand the antiepileptic effects of X-ray synchrotron microbeams in different animal models of epilepsy. We showed a decrease of seizures after Interlaced Microbeam Radiotherapy (IntMRT) of the somatosensory cortex, known as the seizure generator, in a genetic model of absence epilepsy. These antiepileptic effects were stable over 4 months and with low tissular and functional side-effects. The irradiated pyramidal neurons still displayed their physiological activity but did not synchronize anymore. We also obtained a lasting suppression of seizures after IntMRT of the dorsal hippocampus in a mouse model of mesiotemporal lobe epilepsy. However, an important variability of antiepileptic efficiency was observed probably due to the small size of the targeted structure. Despite these encouraging proofs-of-concepts, there is now a need to adapt IntMRT to other models of epilepsy in rodents which are close to refractory forms of epilepsy in human patients and to implement this approach to non-human primates, before moving to clinical trials.     

Multi-electrode Array Recordings of Human Epileptic Postoperative Cortical Tissue

Epilepsy, affecting about 1% of the population, comprises a group of neurological disorders characterized by the periodic occurrence of seizures, which disrupt normal brain function. Despite treatment with currently available antiepileptic drugs targeting neuronal functions, one third of patients with epilepsy are pharmacoresistant. In this condition, surgical resection of the brain area generating seizures remains the only alternative treatment. Studying human epileptic tissues has contributed to understand new epileptogenic mechanisms during the last 10 years. Indeed, these tissues generate spontaneous interictal epileptic discharges as well as pharmacologically-induced ictal events which can be recorded with classical electrophysiology techniques. Remarkably, multi-electrode arrays (MEAs), which are microfabricated devices embedding an array of spatially arranged microelectrodes, provide the unique opportunity to simultaneously stimulate and record field potentials, as well as action potentials of multiple neurons from different areas of the tissue. Thus MEAs recordings offer an excellent approach to study the spatio-temporal patterns of spontaneous interictal and evoked seizure-like events and the mechanisms underlying seizure onset and propagation. Here we describe how to prepare human cortical slices from surgically resected tissue and to record with MEAs interictal and ictal-like events ex vivo.     

Characterization of Phenytoin,Carbamazepine, Vinpocetine and Clorgyline Simultaneous Effects on Sodium Channels and Catecholamine Metabolism in Rat Striatal Nerve Endings

The effects of two classic antiepileptic drugs (carbamazepine and phenytoin), a potential antiepileptic (vinpocetine) and a monoamine-oxidase inhibitor (clorgyline) on the simultaneous changes (detected by HPLC) on Glu, Asp, dopamine and DOPAC inside and outside striatal isolated nerve endings were investigated. Under resting conditions phenytoin, carbamazepine and clorgyline increased dopamine release. Phenytoin and clorgyline increased internal dopamine and decreased DOPAC formation. Carbamazepine decreased internal dopamine and practically did not change DOPAC formation. Glu and Asp release was unchanged. Neurotransmitter release induced by the Na⁺ channel opener veratridine was reduced by all the antiepileptic drugs tested, except phenytoin which, like clorgyline, facilitated veratridine-induced dopamine release. We conclude that besides the antagonism exerted by carbamazepine, phenytoin and vinpocetine on excitatory neurotransmitters release triggered by Na⁺ channel activation, that might importantly contribute to their anticonvulsant action, they exert different actions on striatal dopamine distribution, that might explain their different side effect profiles.     

Epileptic activity during early postnatal life in the AY-9944 model of atypical absence epilepsy

Atypical absence epilepsy (AAE) is an intractable disorder characterized by slow spike-and-wave discharges in electroencephalograms (EEGs) and accompanied by severe cognitive dysfunction and neurodevelopmental or neurological deficits in humans. Administration of the cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitor AY-9944 (AY) during the postnatal developmental period induces AAE in animals; however, the neural mechanism of seizure development remains largely unknown. In this study, we characterized the cellular manifestations of AY-induced AAE in the mouse. Treatment of brain slices with AY increased membrane excitability of hippocampal CA1 neurons. AY treatment also increased input resistance of CA1 neurons during early postnatal days (PND) 5–10. However, these effects were not observed during late PND (14–21) or in adulthood (7–10 weeks). Notably, AY treatment elicited paroxysmal depolarizing shift (PDS)-like epileptiform discharges during the early postnatal period, but not during late PND or in adults. The PDS-like events were not compromised by application of glutamate or GABA receptor antagonists. However, the PDS-like events were abolished by blockage of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels. Hippocampal neurons isolated from an in vivo AY model of AAE showed similar PDS-like epileptiform discharges. Further, AY-treated neurons from T-type Ca²⁺ channel α1G knockout (Ca_v3.1^−/−) mice, which do not exhibit typical absence seizures, showed similar PDS-like epileptiform discharges. These results demonstrate that PDS-like epileptiform discharges during the early postnatal period are dependent upon Na⁺ channels and are involved in the generation of AY-induced AAE, which is distinct from typical absence epilepsy. Our findings may aid our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of clinical AAE in individuals, such as those with Lennox–Gastaut syndrome.     

δ-Aminolaevulinic Acid Uptake, Toxicity, and Effect on [14C]γ-Aminobutyric Acid Uptake into Neurons and Glia in Culture

δ-Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) uptake into neurons and glia in primary culture as well as ALA toxicity and its effects on γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) uptake were examined. [4-¹⁴C]ALA uptake into neurons and glia was nonsaturable, partially Na⁺- and temperature-dependent, and appeared to comprise mainly diffusion into the cell. 2,4-Dinitrophenol caused some inhibition of [4-¹⁴C]ALA uptake whereas ouabain, KCN, or amino acids at 1 mM concentration were without effect. ALA (1 mM) caused a slight inhibition of [U-¹⁴C]GABA uptake into neurons (14%) and glia (9%), but was without effect at lower concentrations. It is unlikely that, in acute porphyria, ALA reaches sufficiently high levels in nervous tissue to interfere with the reuptake of GABA into neurons or glia. ALA was shown to be toxic, judged by the loss of cells, to both neurons and glia at concentrations as low as 10 μM. Such a concentration of ALA may be expected to occur in the CSF of porphyric patients in the acute attack. However, results obtained with dispersed cells in culture may not necessarily reflect the situation in vivo where the cell may have a far greater resistance to the effects of toxic agents.     

Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs on Antioxidant and Oxidant Molecular Pathways: Focus on Trace Elements

Current reports on trace elements, oxidative stress, and the effect of antiepileptic drugs are poor and controversial. We aimed to review effects of most common used antiepileptics on antioxidant, trace element, calcium ion (Ca²⁺) influx, and oxidant systems in human and experimental animal models. Observations of lower blood or tissue antioxidant levels in epileptic patients and animals compared to controls in recent publications may commonly support the proposed crucial role of antioxidants in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Effects of old and new antiepileptics on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in epilepsy are controversial. The old antiepileptic drugs like valproic acid, phenytoin, and carbamazepine induced ROS overproduction, while new epileptic drugs (e.g., topiramate and zonisamide) induced scavenger effects on over production of ROS in human and animals. Antioxidant trace element levels such as selenium, copper, and zinc were generally low in the blood of epileptic patients, indicating trace element deficiencies in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Recent papers indicate that selenium with/without topiramate administration in human and animals decreased seizure levels, although antioxidant values were increased. Recent studies also reported that sustained depolarization of mitochondrial membranes, enhanced ROS production and Ca²⁺ influx may be modulated by topiramate. In conclusion, there is a large number of recent studies about the role of antioxidants or neuroprotectants in clinical and experimental models of epilepsy. New antiepileptic drugs are more prone to restore antioxidant redox systems in brain and neurons.     

Effects of different classes of antiepileptic drugs on brain-stem pathways

Antiepileptic drugs probably act by preventing the spread of the abnormal paroxysmal activity from the epileptogenic focus to surrounding normal neurons. An investigation of the mechanism of action of established anticonvulsant drugs on normal neuronal systems may therefore offer useful insights into the pathogenesis of the seizure disorders that these drugs serve to control. Antiabsence drugs (ethosuximide, valproate) depress reticular inhibitory pathways. Drugs effective against generalized tonic-clonic seizures (phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproate) depress reticular excitatory pathways. Drugs that are also effective against trigeminal neuralgia (phenytoin, carbamazepine) also depress afferent excitation and facilitate segmental inhibition in the trigeminal complex. Drugs that depress afferent excitation and facilitate segmental inhibition but do not depress the reticular system (baclofen) are effective against trigeminal neuralgia but do not have clinical antiepileptic properties. These observations indicate that the ability to depress the reticular core is an important characteristic of antiepileptic drugs, and suggest that the reticular core is involved in the spread and generalization of clinical seizures.     

Role of Oxidative Stress and the Glutathione System in Loss of Dopamine Neurons Due to Impairment of Energy Metabolism

Abstract: Alterations in the glutathione system and impairment in energy metabolism have both been implicated in the loss of dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease. This study examined the importance of cellular glutathione and the involvement of oxidative stress in the loss of mesencephalic dopamine and GABA neurons due to inhibition of energy metabolism with malonate, the reversible, competitive inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase. Consistent with previous findings, exposure to malonate for 24 h followed by 48 h of recovery caused a dose-dependent loss of the dopamine population with little effect on the GABA population. Toxicity was assessed by simultaneous measurement of the high-affinity uptake of [³H]dopamine and [¹⁴C]GABA. Total glutathione content in rat mesencephalic cultures was decreased by 65% with a 24-h pretreatment with 10 µM buthionine sulfoxamine. This reduction in glutathione level greatly potentiated damage to both the dopamine and GABA populations and removed the differential susceptibility between the two populations in response to malonate. These findings point to a role for oxidative stress occurring during energy impairment by malonate. Consistent with this, several spin-trapping agents, α-phenyl-tert-butyl nitrone and two cyclic nitrones, MDL 101,002 and MDL 102,832, completely prevented malonate-induced damage to the dopamine neurons in the absence of buthionine sulfoxamine. The spin-trapping agents also completely prevented toxicity to both the dopamine and GABA populations when cultures were exposed to malonate after pretreatment with buthionine sulfoxamine to reduce glutathione levels. Counts of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons verified enhancement of cell loss by buthionine sulfoxamine plus malonate and protection against cell loss by the spin-trapping agents. NMDA receptors have also been shown to play a role in malonate-induced dopamine cell loss and are associated with the generation of free radicals. Consistent with this, toxicity to the dopamine neurons due to a 1-h exposure to 50 µM glutamate was attenuated by the nitrone spin traps. These findings provide evidence for an oxidative challenge occurring during inhibition of energy metabolism by malonate and show that glutathione is an important neuroprotectant for midbrain neurons during situations when energy metabolism is impaired.     

Interactions between valproate,glutamate, aspartate,and GABA with respect to uptake in astroglial primary cultures

Astrocytes have been proposed to regulate the extracellular space in the brain, even if rather little is known about their specific functions. One possibility for obtaining more knowledge on the functions of astroglial cells is to examine how they respond on exposure to pharmacological agents. Na⁺-valproate is an anticonvulsive drug which is used in the treatment of several types of epilepsy. The mechanisms of action of the drug are not fully understood, but the GABA-ergic system, both in neurons and astrocytes, has been shown to be affected. In the present study, the effects of valproate were investigated on astroglial cells in primary cultures from newborn rat cerebral cortex. The transport of the drug itself and its effects on the transport of the amino acid transmitters glutamate, aspartate and -aminobutyric acid (GABA) into astrocytes were examined. The [³H]valproate transport into the astrocytes was increased after exposure tol-glutamate but notl-aspartate. On the other hand, after acute exposure for the drug, the transport of [³H]l-glutamate and [³H]l-aspartate decreased, as also did the affinity but not the transport capacity for the [³H]GABA uptake. However, after 5 days chronic valproate exposure, no effects could be seen on the uptake kinetics ofl-glutamate orl-aspartate. For GABA, the affinity decreased, while the transport capacity remained unchanged compared with controls. The results showed that valproate, glutamate, aspartate and GABA were capable of interacting significantly with each others transport into the astrocytes.     

Amino acid neurotransmitter transporters: Structure,function, and molecular diversity

Many biologically active compounds including neurotransmitters, metabolic precursors, and certain drugs are accumulated intracellularly by transporters that are coupled to the transmembrane Na⁺ gradient. Amino acid neurotransmitter transporters play a key role in the regulation of extracellular amino acid concentrations and termination of neurotransmission in the CNS

1 Abbreviations: CNS, central nervous system; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; cDNA, complementary deoxyribonucleic acid; mRNA, messenger ribonucleic acid; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; PKC, protein kinase C; PMA, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate; DAG, diacyl glycerol; R59022, DAG kinase inhibitor; AA, arachidonic acid; ACHC, cis-3-aminocyclohexanecarboxylic acid; GAT-A, ACHC-sensitive GABA transporter; GAT-B, β-alanine-sensitive GABA transporter; GLY-1 and GLYT-1, glycine transporters; PROT-1, proline transporter; BGT-1, betaine transporter.

. Transporters for the major amino acid neurotransmitters glutamate, GABA, and glycine are found in both neurons and glial cells. Recent work has resulted in the identification of cDNAs encoding several amino acid neurotransmitter transport proteins, all of which belong to the Na⁺-and Cl^?-dependent transporter gene family. The diversity of this family suggests a degree of transporter heterogeneity that is greater than that indicated by biochemical and pharmacological studies.     

Effect of Antiepileptic Drugs for Acute and Chronic Seizures in Children with Encephalitis

BackgroundEncephalitis presents with seizures in the acute phase and increases the risk of late unprovoked seizures and epilepsy. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of antiepileptic drugs in pediatric patients with acute seizures due to encephalitis and epilepsy.ResultsDuring the study period, 1038 patients (450 girls, 588 boys) were enrolled. Among them, 44.6% (463) had seizures in the acute phase, 33% had status epilepticus, and 26% (251) developed postencephalitic epilepsy. At one year of follow-up, 205 of the 251 patients with postencephalitic epilepsy were receiving antiepileptic drugs while 18% were seizure free even after discontinuing the antiepileptic drugs. Among those with postencephalitic epilepsy, 67% had favorable outcomes and were using <2 anti-epileptic drugs while 15% had intractable seizures and were using ≥ 2 antiepileptic drugs. After benzodiazepines, intravenous phenobarbital was preferred over phenytoin as treatment of postencephalitic seizures in the acute phase. For refractory status epilepticus, high-dose topiramate combined with intravenous high-dose phenobarbital or high-dose lidocaine had less side effects.ConclusionsChildren with encephalitis have a high rate of postencephalitic epilepsy. Phenobarbital and clonazepam are the most common drugs used, alone or in combination, for postencephalitic epilepsy.     

GABAergic mechanisms in the electrophysiological actions of ethanol on cerebellar neurons

We have found that the partial inverse benzodiazepine agonists Ro 15-4513 and FG 7142 antagonize the depressant electrophysiologial effects of locally applied ethanol in the cerebellum. Although absolute tissue concentrations are not known, dose-response curves constructed using pressure-ejection doses as previously described (31, 25) we found that FG 7142 was more efficacious, but less potent than Ro 15-4513. Our observation that ethanol and inverse benzodiazepine agonists have interactions which are not competitive might suggest that these two drugs act through separate, but interactive mechanisms in order to produce the observed ethanol antagonism. If such independent interactions were mediated at different sites on a given macromolecular complex, such as the GABA_a/Cl^– channel, then one might expect to find allosteric interactions between those sites as well as with the functional response of the complex to GABA activation. Indeed, this hypothesis is consistent with the recent finding of Harris and collaborators that ethanol potentiates the inverse agonist actions of Ro 15-4513 and FG 7142. On the other hand, we were unable to find large ethanol-induced potentiations of GABA effects on all neurons which showed depressant responses to ethanol administration in rat cerebellum. However we did find that the GABA_a antagonist, bicuculline, blocks the depressant effects of ethanol on the same neurons. We conclude that the interaction between ethanol and GABA probably does not occur directly at the GABA_a receptor site, but that the GABA_a mechanism does play a permissive role in the ethanol-induced depressions of cerebellar Purkinje neurons. Thus, although a postsynaptic GABA_a mechanism may not be the primary locus of action at which ethanol causes depressant electrophysiological responses of neurons, activation of the GABA_a receptor may be required to make cerebellar Purkinje neurons responsive to the depressant actions of ethanol. Further investigations will be required to determine the pre vs postsynaptic nature of this interaction of ethanol with the GABA mechanism of action.Special issue dedicated to Dr. Erminio Costa