神农架自然保护区川金丝猴投食群友好行为的初步观察

为探讨人工补食条件下川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)的友好行为因补食产生的影响,2007年1～9月,采用行为取样法、扫描取样法和全事件记录法对湖北神农架自然保护区大龙潭投食猴群的友好行为进行了观察.共记录到11种友好行为,发生频次居前的是理毛、张嘴、拥抱、游戏、趋近.友好行为的发起者和承受者在性别间差异均不显著,但在年龄间差异均显著.在一雄多雌单元内发起者按次数多少为成年、少年、青年、亚成年猴,承受者的顺序亦如此.在全雄单元内发起者按次数多少为成年、少年、亚成年、青年猴,承受者的顺序亦如此.友好行为在单元内和单元间差异显著,单元内多于单元间.这在一定程度上说明川金丝猴社会单元内个体间的关系紧密,单元间的关系相对疏远.友好行为在繁殖和非繁殖季节差异不显著.     

黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为比较

为探讨黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为与猴(行为发起者)和游人(行为承受者)年龄/性别组的关系,于2008年11-12月和2009年4-5月以黄山短尾猴鱼鳞坑YAl群和YA2群为研究对象,将其攻击行为按照危害程度大小划分为3类,采用全事件取样法和连续取样法观察记录猴对游人攻击行为类型、发生攻击行为的短尾猴和受到攻击的游人年龄/性别组,并统计猴群和游人数最.研究发现,成年雄猴所有攻击行为发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年雌猴和未成年猴攻击行为Ⅲ(威胁)发乍的比例显著低于期望值(P<0.01);在游人中,成年男性受到所有攻击发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年女性和末成年人受到攻击行为Ⅲ发生的比例显著低十期单值(P<0.01).结果表明,黄山矩尾猴对游人的攻击行为在人猴年龄/性别组中存在差异.成年雄性比成年雌性和未成年猴更易攻击游人,成年男性游人比成年女性和未成年人更易受剑短尾猴攻击.建议在管理过程中重点监控管理成年雄猴和提醒成年男性游人,这为进一步探讨人猴之间关系提供科学基础,并为其他类似地区生态旅游监管提供案例以供借鉴.     

人工辅助投食滇金丝猴一雄多雌单元之间的等级序列

群居灵长类动物等级序列是长期进化的结果,也是动物行为生态学研究的热点。灵长类动物个体间通过等级序列,合理的利用自然资源、避免过多的伤亡、保护群体内的幼弱者,从而更好地适应复杂的生态环境。2013年6月至2014年1月,采用焦点动物取样法对白马雪山国家级自然保护区人工辅助投食滇金丝猴群的6个一雄多雌单位之间等级序列进行了研究。通过对一雄多雌单元之间攻击-屈服行为数据分析发现：一雄多雌单位之间存在明显的等级序列（大个子单元＞单疤单元＞红脸单元＞联合国单元＞偏冠单元＞花唇单元）;单元之间成年雄性的攻击行为多于成年雌性;单位之间的等级序列与取食次数、第一序位取食总次数呈显著正相关,与各单元取食总时间无明显相关性;同时,一雄多雌单元之间的等级序列与单元内成年雌性数量呈显著正相关。研究结果符合群居灵长类动物攻击-屈服假说和资源优先占据-雌性高序列偏好假说。     

秦岭川金丝猴一个投食群等级关系的研究

2002年7月至2003年6月,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法对秦岭山脉周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙西梁川金丝猴投食群一雄多雌社会单元内部和社会单元间的攻击和屈服行为的指向和次数进行记录,应用计算优势指数的方法对社会单元内不同性别年龄组和社会单元间的等级进行排列。结果表明,在每一个社会单元内部成年雄性居最高地位,所有成年雌性占有第二阶层,亚成体处于第三阶层,青少年个体处于最低层。每个社会单元内成年雌性在一年内的等级序列并不是固定不变的,一般是雌性在产仔后顺位明显上升。八个社会单元在交配阶段和产仔阶段等级结构不同,等级最高的社会单元以及等级最低的社会单元的等级顺序没有发生变化,等级接近的社会单元间的等级顺序发生变化,其变化的原因可能主要与社会单元内部成员相互协作进行攻击有关。     

野生太行山猕猴的社会结构

2009年2月至2010年7月,在河南太行山猕猴国家级自然保护区济源管理局所辖的天坛山管护区,基于个体识别和野外跟踪,观察了一个野生太行山猕猴群(王屋1群, WW-1)的社会结构,采用随机取样法(Ad libitum sampling)记录了该群内成年个体之间、母系单元之间的竞争行为过程,进而依据"David得分法"构建了WW-1群内成年个体及母系单元间的优势等级, 并采用瞬时扫描取样法(Instantaneous andscan sampling)记录了成年个体到达投食区的移动顺序, 分析了平均移动序位与社会顺位的相关性。结果表明: 1)WW-1群体大小为41只个体, 由7个成年雄性和13个成年雌性以及21个未成年猕猴组成, 群内的成年雌性个体分别隶属于3个母系单元; 2)群中成年雄性、成年雌性、亚成年雄性、亚成年雌性、青少年雄性、青少年雌性、婴幼猴雄性、婴幼猴雌性的比例为1∶1.86∶0.29∶0.43∶0.86∶1.29∶0.14∶0, 且未成年个体占全群的51.2%; 3)WW-1群表现出严格的优势等级结构, 成年个体优势顺位由高到低依次是: 豁鼻>次红>白鼻>痞子>红脸>尖脸>小白脸>皱眉>光鼻>长毛>黑颊>小不点>斑点>斑眼>灰头, 母系单元间的优势顺位由高到低依次是红脸单元>长毛单元>斑点单元。研究结果提示, 太行山猕猴的社会结构为多雄多雌型; 成年雄性个体之间优势等级较成年雌性严格, 而成年雌性的社会顺位受所在母系单元社会顺位的影响; WW-1群的α位为成年雄性, 其在获取资源上具有优先性。     

在缺乏繁殖能力的食蟹猴群体中探究指长比与社会等级以及行为的关系

为了探究笼养食蟹猴Macaca fascicularis指长比与社会等级、行为之间的关系,2016年1月,在江苏省苏州西山中科实验动物有限公司猴场内筛选12只健康雌性食蟹猴,组建新的群体前测量实验个体的食指和无名指指长比率(指长比)。利用人为观察记录法和视频采集法记录群体进食顺序和个体行为,分析群体等级秩序和相应个体的行为表现。研究发现,在食蟹猴抑郁样(低头、蜷缩)、独处、运动、社交、自我护理、攻击等行为中,高、低指长比组的食蟹猴在抑郁样、独处、攻击行为上的差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。研究表明,社会等级强度较高的食蟹猴个体具有较低的指长比比值,在社会活动中具有更强的攻击性;具有较高指长比比值的食蟹猴个体在社会环境下更容易出现抑郁倾向。     

云南塔城滇金丝猴掘食行为的初步研究

2006年3月至2007年5月,我们对云南塔城一个滇金丝猴群进行了连续跟踪,旨在调查其生境利用情况.在此期间,我们发现滇金丝猴在地面有掘土行为.通过照片分析,发现滇金丝猴的这种掘食行为旨在获取某种植物地下球茎.后分别在两个地点采用焦点动物行为记录法对这种掘食行为进行了记录.通过比较单次掘食行为的持续时间、掘食行为的发生频次以及掘取成功率,我们发现这些指标在不同年龄-性别组个体间的差异明显.成年雄猴的成功率明显高于其它两组;在单次掘食行为的时间花费上,成年雄猴和雌猴之间无差别,而亚成年个体表现为用时短和变换挖掘地点频繁的特点.就雄猴而言,成年有助于掘食成功.同时发现,带新生仔的雌猴也会下地采掘,但尚无成功采食纪录.进食植物球茎的过程中未发现分享块茎行为,但有抢食表现.     

五只笼养猕猴群体等级结构及对笼舍区域利用情况

为了解动物园笼养猕猴的社会等级结构及其对笼舍不同区域利用率,从2017年4月至2018年3月利用瞬时扫描取样法（5 min间隔）,对都匀市西山公园的M1（成年雄猴）、F1（成年雌猴）、F2（青年雌猴）、F3（青年雌猴）和F4（幼年雌猴）5只笼养猕猴的攻击、屈服行为发生频次及其所处笼舍A（高空区）、B（休息区）、C（丰容区）、D（笼底区）和E区（前笼区）的次数进行研究。结果表明,该猴群社会等级顺位从高到低是M1﹥F1﹥F2﹥F3﹥F4;在笼舍中猕猴对C区全年利用率最高,依次减少的是B、D、E和A区;不同性别猕猴对A、B和D区的利用率具有显著差异（P<0.05）;不同年龄段猕猴对A、B和D区的利用率差异显著（P<0.05）;不同季节猕猴对各区域的利用率无显著差异。研究说明猕猴等级结构与年龄、性别和亲缘关系有关,对笼舍各区域利用率与性别和年龄因素有关、与季节无关。     

人工投食行为对非人灵长类社会生态的影响

近年来,国内开展了对几种非人灵长类投食群的研究。借鉴日本猴(Macaca fuscata)、恒河猴(M.mulatta)和黑猩猩(Pan troglodytes)长期积累的研究经验,有利于我们减少人工投食对非人灵长类带来的不利影响,也有利于推动国内非人灵长类社会生态学的深入研究。本文通过比较这三种灵长类野生群和投食群之间的差异,量化地分析了人工投食对灵长类动物社会生态学方面的影响。结果表明在社会行为方面,人工投食会导致灵长类动物的聚集、增加争斗频率、改变个体间等级关系、延缓分群现象、影响活动域和增加新兴行为。在种群数量方面,人工投食会缩短雌性性成熟时间、增加出生率和婴猴存活率、减少成年猴死亡率。而人工投食对雄性性成熟、出生间隔等方面的影响仍需要进一步考证。最后我们讨论了人工投食行为的利弊,并建议应谨慎和妥善地实施人工投食,和对非人灵长类投食群进行合理的监管。     

秦岭川金丝猴成年雌性优势资源占有与社会等级的判定

群体生活利弊并存,有利的一面是降低了被捕食的风险和提高了优势资源共享度,不利的一面是时刻面临群内资源竞争。等级关系是群居非人灵长类物种中最常见的一种资源调节方式,制约着优势资源在个体间的分配。为了探讨川金丝猴群的优势资源占有规律与社会等级的关系,本研究以秦岭北坡中段周至国家级自然保护区内玉皇庙村的一个人工投食川金丝猴的4 个一雄多雌单元(OMU)内成年雌性为研究对象,从2009 年9 月至2010 年1 月通过设计同心圆,以优势资源区域占有频次、时间等参数指标计算获取程度,从而对该猴群成年雌性的等级关系进行判定。结果证实取食和休息阶段的等级顺序基本上一致,通过Spearman 相关性非参数检验将投食和休息时的等级顺序与早期采用取代行为判定结果进行比较,具有极显著的正相关性。本研究表明利用优势资源占有确立单元内雌性等级具有一定的可行性,并且在野外操作和数据统计上更简单易行,可以在更短的时间内迅速判定雌性等级,或许能为野外投食和笼养条件下非人灵长类雌性等级的研究提供一种新的判定方法。     

Evaluating social influences on food-processing behavior in white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

Interpopulation variability in patterns of food processing, similar to what is described as "traditional" or "cultural" variation in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), was identified in white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus). However, recent comparisons of food processing in capuchins were conducted only at the population level, with relatively little attention given to variability among groups, age/sex classes, or individuals. This paper examines variability in the processing of specific food types within the context of various social networks (i.e., patterns of association, rank, and kinship) among free-ranging Cebus capucinus at Santa Rosa National Park in Costa Rica. We collected data on two groups of white-faced capuchins in 2001, identifying rates of "food interest" for each individual, as well as forms of processing for specific food types. Juveniles exhibited the most interest in the food-processing behavior of other group members, and food interest was directed most frequently toward adult females. We identified distinctive processing techniques for several food items (Luehea candida pods, Sloanea terniflora fruits, and caterpillars) that facilitated comparisons among individuals within groups. Food-processing techniques for Sloanea fruit and caterpillars appeared to vary independently of the social networks examined in this study. However, we found evidence that variation in Luehea candida processing is to some degree linked to both patterns of association and social rank. The potential influence of these variables on observed food processing patterns warrants further scrutiny.     

Social relationships in a herd of Sorraia horses Part I. Correlates of social dominance and contexts of aggression

Factors related to dominance rank and the functions of aggression were studied in a herd of Sorraia horses, Equus caballus, under extensive management. Subjects were 10 adult mares 5-18 years old and a stallion introduced into the group for breeding. Dominance relationships among mares were clear, irrespective of rank difference, and remained stable after introduction of the stallion. The dominance hierarchy was significantly linear and rank was positively correlated with age and total aggressiveness. Higher-ranking mares received lower frequency and intensity of agonistic interactions. Nevertheless, higher-ranking dominants were not more likely to elicit submission from their subordinates than lower-ranking dominants. Neither close-ranking mares nor mares with less clear dominance relationships were more aggressive towards each other. Agonistic interactions seemed to be used more importantly in regulation of space than to obtain access to food or to reassert dominance relationships. Contexts of aggression were related to mare rank. The results suggest that dominance relationships based on age as a conventional criterion were established to reduce aggressiveness in a herd where the costs of aggression are likely to outweigh the benefits.     

Parental differences in brood provisioning by Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus

Capsule Females varied their provisioning patterns according to brood age and brood size, whereas males did not.

Aims To quantify how parents balance the needs of their offspring for food and protection.

Methods We studied 13 nests from hides and spent on average 101 hours per nest monitoring prey types, provisioning rate and the time spent at the nest by both sexes in relation to brood size and brood age.

Results Males always provided more food than females. Males brought similar amounts of prey items irrespective of brood size and nestling age, whereas females brought more prey and bigger items to larger and older broods. Females spent less time brooding larger broods, particularly early on.

Conclusions Hen Harrier parents share the provisioning burden, with each parent delivering prey as a function of brood care requirements, hunting capability and the behaviour of the other parent.     

Consistent individual variations in aggressiveness and a behavioral syndrome across breeding contexts in different environments in the Black-tailed Gull

Individual behaviors of animals do not evolve separately; they do so in association with other behaviors caused by single shared genetic or physiological constraints and/or favored by selection. Thus, measuring behavioral syndromes—suites of correlated behaviors across different contexts—leads to a better understanding of the adaptive significance of variations in behaviors. However, relatively few studies have examined behavioral syndromes in wild animal populations in changing environments. We investigated a potential behavioral syndrome across antipredator nest defense, territorial defense, chick provisioning, and mating behaviors of male Black-tailed Gulls Larus crassirostris in two successive years under different conspecific territorial intrusion risks and food conditions. Males that presented high levels of antipredator nest defense (aggressive antipredator defenders) against a crow decoy (crows are egg predators) defended their territories against conspecific intruders more frequently than did other males (nonaggressive antipredator defenders), independent of the risk of intrusion. Aggressive antipredator defenders also fed their chicks more frequently than nonaggressive males, but only in a year of low food availability. Taken together, this indicates that males show consistent aggressiveness regardless of breeding context (antipredator and territorial defense), but can regulate food provisioning according to food availability.     

Functional analysis of social staring behavior in an all-male group of mountain gorillas

A total 202 social staring episodes (prolonged gazing by one individual toward another within a short distance) were observed in various social contexts among six unrelated, adult, and subadult male mountain gorillas. Staring was not accompanied by distinct facial expressions by actors or recipients, irrespective of their age or dominance rank. Younger, subordinate animals tended to stare at elder, dominant animals more frequently than vice versa. Staring may have multiple functions depending on the social context. In the initiation of non-agonistic interactions, staring rarely occurred, but was very successful for younger males in eliciting play or homosexual interactions from older animals. Staring was also directed by younger males to older males for greeting or appeasement. It may possibly play a role in reducing the increased social tension that occurs during or after conflict and in averting the potential conflict among older males. Younger males occasionally supplanted older males by staring at feeding spots. This slow supplantation is similar to the phenomenon of food sharing achieved through begging behavior in chimpanzees and bonobos. A prolonged gaze including staring by subordinates towards dominants may characterize the frequent and prolonged face-to-face interactions in the African great apes, and contrasts with a frequent gaze aversion by subordinates towards dominants in macaques or baboons. A difference between gorillas and other apes is that, chimpanzees and bonobos make positive contact with each other through eye contact, while gorillas simply stare at another without physical contact in greeting or appeasement process. Staring may serve an effective strategy for younger male gorillas to intervene safely in olders' conflict and sometimes to suppress or inhibit olders' performance, but their non-agonistic contacts or supporting attacks may not contribute to the establishment or support of social bonds between them. It is possible that staring may be common among the African great apes and man, and that it has evolved as a tactics to mask the dominant/subordinate relationships between individuals with multiple functions.     

Effects of short-term hunger and competitive asymmetry on facultative aggression in nestling black guillemots Cepphus grylle

Siblings in a diversity of species are facultatively aggressive,yet the proximate control of the aggressive response and theecological conditions selecting for such systems are poorlyunderstood. In this study, we investigated the effects of foodamount (food amount hypothesis) and competitive asymmetry onsibling aggression in black guillemot broods. Parental provisioningrates were experimentally manipulated in broods comprisinga range of hatching intervals over a 12-h period. Aggressionbecame evident only after parental provisioning rates wereexperimentally reduced. When parental provisioning resumed,adults did not increase their feeding rate to compensate forthe induced food deficit, and the result of sibling rivalry was a change in the allocation of parental deliveries from oneof equality to one in favor of the dominant chick. Food-deprivedchicks from synchronous broods were more aggressive than thosefrom asynchronous broods, suggesting that one benefit of hatchingasynchrony in the black guillemot is to establish an efficientcompetitive hierarchy among siblings which minimizes the needfor costly aggressive interactions. On the following day, siblingaggression ceased, and chicks regained an equal share of parentalfeeds. Our results provide the first evidence that short-termfood shortage per se acts as an initial trigger for aggressionand also show that the aggressive response is complicated byfactors associated with hatching and laying order.     

Fecal glucocorticoids as indicators of metabolic stress in female Sykes' monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis albogularis)

Because of their mediating role in the stress response and potential effects on fitness, glucocorticoid (GC) hormones are increasingly used to assess the physiological costs of environmental and behavioral variation among wild vertebrates. Identifying the proximate causes of GC variation, however, is complicated by simultaneous exposure to multiple potentially stressful stimuli. Here, we use data from a partially provisioned social group of Sykes' monkeys to evaluate the effects of potential psychological and metabolic stressors on temporal and individual variation in fecal GC (fGC) excretion among 11 adult females. Despite high rates of agonism over provisioned foods fGCs declined during periods of high provisioning frequency when fruit availability was dominated by neem (Azadirachta indica), an item requiring great feeding effort. Provisioned foods did not prevent fGC increases when availability of the most preferred main fruit item, tamarind (Tamarindus indica), declined drastically. Although rank-related differences in access to provisioned foods and rates of agonism did not lead to an overall effect of rank on fGCs, low-ranking females excreted more fGCs than high-ranking females during a period of high provisioning intensity and low fruit availability. The emergence of this rank effect was associated with elevated feeding effort in all females, a greater access to provisioned items by high-ranking females, and a higher proportion of time spent moving in low-ranking females. Our findings suggest that metabolic stressors were the primary determinants of both temporal and individual variation in fGCs, indicating potential fitness benefits for high-ranking females when food availability is limited.