人乳头状瘤病毒复制机制的研究进展

人乳头状瘤病毒(human papillomavirus,HPV)DNA以游离和整合两种形式存在于感染细胞中。游离形式HPVs的复制依赖于上皮细胞的分化,病毒E1、E2蛋白和复制起始位点(origin,Ori)为复制必需元件,E1和E2蛋白与Ori结合起始病毒DNA的复制。随后,病毒DNA通过E2蛋白与Brd4(bromodomain-containing protein 4)等细胞蛋白的互作而与染色体结合,并随细胞分裂平均分配到子代细胞中。在肿瘤中,高危型HPVs的基因组通常以整合形式存在,并随细胞的增殖而复制。     

美国启动大规模探索癌细胞基因组变化的研究

美国国立卫生研究院（NIH）旗下的国立癌症研究所（NCI）和国立人类基因组研究所（NHGRI）于2005年12月宣布，他们启动了一项应用基因组分析技术、特别是大规模基因组测序技术、旨在加速对癌细胞在分子水平上理解的综合性的研究计划。     

石刁柏雄性偏向核质体DNA的克隆与分析

该研究以雌雄异株植物石刁柏为材料,利用基因组消减杂交技术对石刁柏雌雄核基因组中的性别差异核质体DNA（nuclear plastid DNA,NUPTs）进行了分离和分析。结果表明：（1）通过构建消减杂交文库共获得了52个雄性偏向序列,序列长度分布在63~297 bp之间,其中有19个差异序列属于叶绿体来源序列（命名为Ao1~Ao19）,且这些序列与石刁柏叶绿体基因组的相似性均大于84%,Ao19与石刁柏叶绿体基因组相似性为100%。（2）利用基因组半定量PCR对19个NUPTs序列的性别差异分析表明,有4条序列为稳定的雄性偏向NUPTs序列,分别为Ao1、Ao3、Ao10和Ao18。（3）序列比对表明,转移到核基因组的NUPTs主要来源于叶绿体基因组的反向重复区（包含IRa和IRb区）,说明石刁柏叶绿体基因组重复区序列更容易向核基因组进行转移形成雄性偏向的NUPTs序列。     

美国国家植物基因组计划资助情况分析

美国植物基因组计划（National Plant Genome Initiative,NPGI）于1998年正式启动,该计划在美国国家科学基金会（NSF）的支持下,成立了由美国农业部（USDA）、能源部（DOE）、国立卫生研究院（NIH）、国家科学基金会（NSF）、科学与技术政策办公室（OSTP）、管理与预算办公室（OMB）和美国国际开发署（USAID）等组成的植物基因组跨机构工作组（Interagency Working Group on Plant Genomes,IWG）,IWG每5年制定一项5年计划来指导协调基因组研究工作。对1998～2009年期间,美国国家科学基金会（NSF）资助国家植物基因组计划（NPGI）的目标、经费、项目变化情况进行了分析,以期得到某些启示和借鉴。     

元基因组文库分析技术研究进展

随着新的分析技术的不断出现和成熟,促进了微生物分子生态学及相关学科的诞生和迅速发展。其中,元基因组文库分析技术即是近年来微生物分子生态学研究领域兴起的一种新的分析技术。就元基因组分析技术诞生的背景及该技术的原理进行了讨论,着重阐述了元基因组文库分析技术在寻找新基因、开发新的生物活性物质、研究群落中微生物多样性、人类元基因组测序等方面的应用。另外,归纳总结了目前国际上常用的诸如PCR为基础的筛选、荧光原位杂交（fluorescent in situ hybridization,FISH）、底物诱导的基因表达筛选（substrate induced gene expression screening,SIGEX）、基因芯片等元基因组文库筛选方法,并就不同方法的优缺点进行了分析和讨论,指出了目前元基因组文库分析技术存在的主要问题并对今后该技术的发展进行了展望。     

鼠尾草叶绿体基因组序列分析

鼠尾草（Salvia japonica）是唇形科（Labiatae）鼠尾草属（Salvia）的一种多年生草本植物,具有十分重要的药用和经济价值。本文采用第二代测序技术Illumina Hiseq平台对鼠尾草的叶绿体基因组进行测序,同时以鼠尾草近缘物种丹参叶绿体基因组作为参考,组装得到完整叶绿体基因组序列。结果表明,鼠尾草叶绿体基因组序列全长153 995 bp,呈典型的四段式结构,其中LSC区长84 573 bp,SSC区长19 874 bp,两个IR区分别长24 774 bp;鼠尾草叶绿体基因组成功注释13组叶绿体基因,基因的种类、数目及GC含量等与唇形科中其它物种较为类似。这些研究结果丰富了鼠尾草属的叶绿体基因组数据,为今后鼠尾草属植物系统发育关系重建积累了基础性数据。     

TALEN技术发展速度加快

6年前ZFN（锌指核酸酶）技术开始普及,3年前TALEN（转录激活子样效应因子核酸酶）技术崭新登场。从苍蝇开始,不断向线虫、人体干细胞、鱼类、植物和动物领域推广。基因组编辑效率不断提高。基因组编辑是指在基因组的特定部位编辑碱基序列信息,越来越受到重视。能够识别目标DNA碱基序列并切断双链DNA的人工核酸酶技术使得基因组编辑成为可能。     

双探针原位杂交揭示稻属BB,CC和EE基因组之间的分化

利用双探针原位要交技术,揭示了稻属Ｏｒｙｚａ ｏｆｆｉｃｉｎａｌｉｓ复合体中ＢＢ、ＣＣ和ＥＥ基因组之间的分化。以标记的ＢＢ基因组（来自二倍体的Ｏ．ｐｕｎｃｔａｔａＫｏｔｅｃｈｙ ｅｘ Ｓｔｅｕｄ．）的总ＤＮＡ为探针,同ＢＢＣＣ基因组（Ｏ．ｍｉｎｕｔａＪ．Ｓ．Ｐｒｅｓｌ．ｅｔ．Ｃ．Ｂ．Ｐｒｅｓｅｌ）的中期染色体杂交,结果表明,ＢＢ基因组的ＤＮＡ探针同与四倍体Ｏ．ｍｉｎｕｔａ中的ＢＢ基因组的染色体之间     

烟草花叶病毒蚕豆株系基因组全序列 分析及结构特征*1)

根据已报道的TMV-U1株系核苷酸序列合成引物,利用RT-PCR技术获得了覆盖整个烟草花叶病毒蚕豆株系（TMV-B）基因组的cDNA重组克隆.结合末端测序技术,完成了TMV-B全基因组序列测定.TMV-B全基因组共有6 395个核苷酸组成,包括4个开读框（ORF）,分别编码126 ku（含1 116个氨基酸）、183 ku（含1 616个氨基酸）、30 ku（含268个氨基酸）和17.5 ku蛋白（含159个氨基酸）.TMV-B与TMV-U1相比全基因组同源率达99.4%,两病毒基因组5′,3′非编码区和CP基因完全相同.TMV-B与TMV-U1之间在126 ku蛋白中有6个氨基酸差异,54 ku蛋白中有2个差异,30 ku蛋白中有3个差异.对导致TMV-B侵染蚕豆的可能致病机理进行了分析.     

微阵列计划（ＭＩＣＲＯＡＲＲＡＹ ＰＲＯＪＥＣＴ，μＡＰ）

随着人类基因组（测序）计划（ＨＧＰ）的完成，探明人类全部基因的结构功能及其表达调控已成为后基因组（功能基因组）时代的主要目标，ＤＮＡ微阵列（又称基因芯片）技术的出现为此提供了光辉的前景。美国国立卫生研究院（ＮＩＨ）不失时机地提出了微阵列计划（Ｍicroarray Project），率先运用微阵列技术进行人类功能基因组的研究。目前介绍微阵列制作原理、杂交信号检测原理及微阵列技术应用的文献已有不少，但涉及微阵列技术的实验操作、阵列机和阅读机的结构和性能、阵列图像分析及软件和数据库的设计开发的文献较少。本文分五个部分介绍了微阵列计划的最新的主要成果，分别是：微阵列计划简介、实验操作、阵列机和阅读机的结构和性能、图像分析及数据库设计和开发。     

BAC system: A novel method for manipulation of herpesvirus genomes based on bacterial genetics

Although methods for reverse genetics of herpesviruses have been established in early 1980s, the steps are laborious and time-consuming. In 1997, Dr. Koszinwski's group reported a novel approach for the construction of herpesvirus mutants, based on cloning the viral genome as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) in E. coli. This technique allows the maintenance of viral genomes as plasmid in E. coli and the reconstitution of viral progeny by transfection of the BAC plasmid into eukaryotic cells. Any genetics modification of the viral genome in E. coli using bacterial genetics is possible, thereby facilitating the introduction of mutagenesis into herpesvirus genome. This 'BAC system' has opened new avenues for reverse and forward genetics of herpesviruses in basic research and in vector development for human therapy. Here we describe the principle of the 'BAC system' in herpesvirus researches.     

以BAC为基础的水痘-带状疱疹病毒的感染性克隆技术及其应用

水痘-带状疱疹病毒（VZV）属于疱疹病毒科α亚科,其原发感染为水痘,潜伏再度激活则引起带状疱疹。目前对其基因功能和疫苗的减毒机制尚不十分清楚。细菌人工染色(BAC)是一种新的用于大分子DNA克隆的载体系统,它具有容量大、遗传稳定、操作简单等优点。将VZV全基因组克隆至BAC系统构建成VZV的感染性克隆,并利用现代基因修饰技术可极大促进对该病毒的研究。就近年来以BAC为基础VZV感染性克隆技术的建立和应用做一综述。     

裂解性复制诱导产生可视化重组Epstein Barr病毒

为了在病毒的整个基因组中研究基因的功能,分析基因与基因之间的相互作用,含有整个野生型EB病毒(EBV)基因组的BAC-EBV质粒(p2089),首先被转染EBV阴性的HEK293细胞,经潮霉素筛选建立了HEK293/p2089稳定细胞系.再构建pcDNA3.1( )/BZLF1和pcDNA3.1( )/BALF4真核表达质粒,共转染至HEK293/p2089细胞内,诱导EBV裂解性复制产生可视化的重组EBV颗粒.重组EBV颗粒感染Raji细胞,在倒置荧光显微镜下和流式细胞仪记数GFP阳性细胞,根据这些"绿色Raji单位"确定病毒的滴度.在国内首次建立这种以细菌人工染色体(BAC)为基础的EBV感染性克隆技术,将允许对EB病毒基因组中任何基因的任何遗传修饰,为在整个基因组中对EB病毒基因功能的研究奠定了基础,也为对EBV与其相关的肿瘤如鼻咽癌发生机理的研究建立了新的技术平台.     

Herpesvirus genetics has come of age

The genetic analysis of the large and complex herpesviruses has been a constant challenge to herpesvirologists. Elegant methods have been developed to produce mutants in infected cells that rely on the cellular recombination machinery. Bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), single copy F-factor-based plasmid vectors of intermediate insert capacity, have now enabled the cloning of complete herpesvirus genomes. Infectious virus genomes can be shuttled between Escherichia coli and eukaryotic cells. Herpesvirus BAC DNA engineering in E. coli by homologous recombination requires neither restriction sites nor cloning steps and allows the introduction of a wide variety of DNA modifications. Such E. coli-based technology has provided a safe, fast and effective approach to the systematic mining of the information stored in herpesvirus genomes as a result of their intimate co-evolution with their specific hosts for millions of years. Use of this technique could lead to new developments in clinical virology and basic virology research, and increase the usage of viral genomes as investigative tools and vectors.     

Construction and manipulation of an infectious clone of the bovine herpesvirus 1 genome maintained as a bacterial artificial chromosome

The complete genome of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) strain V155 has been cloned as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Following electroporation into Escherichia coli strain DH10B, the BoHV-1 BAC was stably propagated over multiple generations of its host. BAC DNA recovered from DH10B cells and transfected into bovine cells produced a cytopathic effect which was indistinguishable from that of the parent virus. Analysis of the replication kinetics of the viral progeny indicated that insertion of the BAC vector into the thymidine kinase gene did not affect viral replication. Specific manipulation of the BAC was demonstrated by deleting the gene encoding glycoprotein E by homologous recombination in DH10B cells facilitated by GET recombination. These studies illustrate that the propagation and manipulation of herpesviruses in bacterial systems will allow for rapid and accurate characterization of BoHV-1 genes. In turn, this will allow for the full utilization of BoHV-1 as a vaccine vector.     

Construction and Manipulation of a New Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Bacterial Artificial Chromosome Clone

Efficient genetic modification of herpesviruses such as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) has come to rely on bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) technology. In order to facilitate this approach, we generated a new KSHV BAC clone, called BAC16, derived from the rKSHV.219 virus, which stems from KSHV and Epstein-Barr virus-coinfected JSC1 primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) cells. Restriction enzyme and complete sequencing data demonstrate that the KSHV of JSC1 PEL cells showed a minimal level of sequence variation across the entire viral genome compared to the complete genomic sequence of other KSHV strains. BAC16 not only stably propagated in both Escherichia coli and mammalian cells without apparent genetic rearrangements, but also was capable of robustly producing infectious virions (～5 × 10(7)/ml). We also demonstrated the utility of BAC16 by generating deletion mutants of either the K3 or K5 genes, whose products are E3 ligases of the membrane-associated RING-CH (MARCH) family. While previous studies have shown that individual expression of either K3 or K5 results in efficient downregulation of the surface expression of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules, we found that K5, but not K3, was the primary factor critical for the downregulation of MHC-I surface expression during KSHV lytic reactivation or following de novo infection. The data presented here demonstrate the utility of BAC16 for the generation and characterization of KSHV knockout and mutant recombinants and further emphasize the importance of functional analysis of viral genes in the context of the KSHV genome besides the study of individual gene expression.     

Engineering large viral DNA genomes using the CRISPR‐Cas9 system

Manipulation of viral genomes is essential for studying viral gene function and utilizing viruses for therapy. Several techniques for viral genome engineering have been developed. Homologous recombination in virus‐infected cells has traditionally been used to edit viral genomes; however, the frequency of the expected recombination is quite low. Alternatively, large viral genomes have been edited using a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) plasmid system. However, cloning of large viral genomes into BAC plasmids is both laborious and time‐consuming. In addition, because it is possible for insertion into the viral genome of drug selection markers or parts of BAC plasmids to affect viral function, artificial genes sometimes need to be removed from edited viruses. Herpes simplex virus (HSV), a common DNA virus with a genome length of 152 kbp, causes labialis, genital herpes and encephalitis. Mutant HSV is a candidate for oncotherapy, in which HSV is used to kill tumor cells. In this study, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat‐Cas9 system was used to very efficiently engineer HSV without inserting artificial genes into viral genomes. Not only gene‐ablated HSV but also gene knock‐in HSV were generated using this method. Furthermore, selection with phenotypes of edited genes promotes the isolation efficiencies of expectedly mutated viral clones. Because our method can be applied to other DNA viruses such as Epstein–Barr virus, cytomegaloviruses, vaccinia virus and baculovirus, our system will be useful for studying various types of viruses, including clinical isolates.     

Efficient infection by a recombinant Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus cloned in a bacterial artificial chromosome: application for genetic analysis

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is etiologically associated with Kaposi's sarcoma and several other malignancies. The lack of an efficient infection system has impeded the understanding of KSHV-related pathogenesis. A genetic approach was used to isolate infectious KSHV. Recombinant bacteria artificial chromosome (BAC) KSHV containing hygromycin resistance and green fluorescent protein (GFP) markers was generated by homologous recombination in KSHV-infected BCBL-1 cells. Recombinant KSHV genomes from cell clones that were resistant to hygromycin, expressed GFP, and produced infectious virions after induction with tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate (TPA) were rescued in Escherichia coli and reconstituted in 293 cells. Several 293 cell lines resulting from infection with recombinant virions induced from a full-length recombinant KSHV genome, named BAC36, were obtained. BAC36 virions established stable latent infection in 293 cells, harboring 1 to 2 copies of viral genome per cell and expressing viral latent proteins, with approximately 0.5% of cells undergoing spontaneous lytic replication, which is reminiscent of KSHV infection in Kaposi's sarcoma tumors. TPA treatment induced BAC36-infected 293 cell lines into productive lytic replication, expressing lytic proteins and producing virions that efficiently infected normal 293 cells with a approximately 50% primary infection rate. BAC36 virions were also infectious to HeLa and E6E7-immortalized human endothelial cells. Since BAC36 can be efficiently shuttled between bacteria and mammalian cells, it is useful for KSHV genetic analysis. The feasibility of the system was illustrated through the generation of a KSHV mutant with the vIRF gene deleted. This cellular model is useful for the investigation of KSHV infection and pathogenesis.     

鸡马立克氏病病毒814株细菌人工染色体的构建

为构建全基因组鸡马立克氏病病毒814株感染性细菌人工染色体(bacterial artificial chromosome, BAC), 首先通过构建表达Eco-gpt(xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, XGPRT, gpt)的哺乳动物细胞基因转移遗传选择标记(1.3 kb)和带有细菌人工染色体的基本功能基因序列的鸡马立克氏病病毒重组病毒转移载体pUAB-gpt-BAC11, 将重组病毒转移载体与鸡马立克氏病病毒细胞总DNA共转染鸡胚成纤维细胞, 在选择培养基中经过8轮加压筛选, 获得并纯化重组病毒; 将重组病毒细胞总DNA电转化大肠杆菌, 筛选共获得38个BAC分子克隆化病毒, 提取BAC-DNA转染鸡胚成纤维细胞以拯救重组病毒。结果表明, MDV-BAC2 DNA再次启动病毒感染, 拯救了重组鸡马立克氏病病毒。成功构建了鸡马立克氏病病毒814株基因组全长感染性细菌人工染色体, 为方便利用现代RED/ET基因重组系统对病毒进行反向遗传操作提供了技术平台; 同时为研究鸡马立克氏病病毒的基因功能和开发新型马立克氏病疫苗奠定了基础。