Effect of cleaning, milling, and baking on deoxynivalenol in wheat.

Samples of wheat naturally infected by Fusarium graminearum Schwabe were obtained from mills in Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, and Minnesota and fields in Nebraska and Kansas in 1982; they were analyzed for deoxynivalenol (DON). The wheat was milled, and DON was found throughout all the milling fractions (bran, shorts, reduction flour, and break flour). The DON recoveries for each mill run ranged from 90 to 98%. These samples, regardless of DON concentration, also gave similar fractional distributions of DON. The greatest (21 ppm [21 micrograms/g]) concentration of DON was found in the bran, and the smallest (1 ppm) was found in the break flour. Cleaning and milling were not effective in removing DON; DON was not destroyed in the bread baked from the naturally contaminated whole wheat flour, but the effect on its concentration in the samples analyzed varied, the reduction ranging from 19 to 69%. The percent reduction found in the cleaned wheat ranged from 6 to 19%. DON concentrations in the following commercially made breads, caraway rye, seedless rye, and pumpernickel, were 45 ppb (ng/g), 39 ppb, and 0 ppb, respectively. The limits of detection by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and high-pressure liquid chromatography for DON were 0.5 and 10 ng, respectively.     

The genetic control of milling yield, dough rheology and baking quality of wheat

Improving the end-use quality of wheat is a key target for many breeding programmes. With the exception of the relationship between glutenin alleles and some dough rheological characters, knowledge concerning the genetic control of wheat quality traits is somewhat limited. A doubled haploid population produced from a cross between two Australian cultivars ‘Trident’ and ‘Molineux’ has been used to construct a linkage map based largely on microsatellite molecular makers. ‘Molineux’ is superior to ‘Trident’ for a number of milling, dough rheology and baking quality characteristics, although by international standards ‘Trident’ would still be regarded as possessing moderately good end-use quality. This population was therefore deemed useful for investigation of wheat end-use quality. A number of significant QTL identified for dough rheological traits mapped to HMW and LMW glutenin loci on chromosomes 1A and 1B. However, QTL associated with dough strength and loaf volume were also identified on chromosome 2A and a significant QTL associated with loaf volume and crumb quality was identified on chromosome 3A. A QTL for flour protein content and milling yield was identified on chromosome 6A and a QTL associated with flour colour reported previously on chromosome 7B was confirmed in this population. The detection of loci affecting dough strength, loaf volume and flour protein content may provide fresh opportunities for the application of marker-assisted selection to improve bread-making quality.     

Effect of soybean lipoxygenase on baking properties of wheat flour

Changes in bread-baking properties of wheat flour caused by soybean lipoxygenase and polyunsaturated fatty acids were studied. A positive effect of soybean flour added during dough kneading in an amount of 2% was demonstrated. A method for dough fermentation increasing the loaf volume and improving organoleptic characteristics and total bread-baking estimate is recommended.     

Effect of soybean lipoxygenae on baking properties of wheat flour

Changes in bread-baking properties of wheat flour caused by soybean lipoxygenase and polyunsaturated fatty acids were studied. A positive effect of soybean flour added during dough kneading in an amount of 2% was demonstrated. A method for dough fermentation increasing the loaf volume and improving organoleptic characteristics and total bread-baking estimate is recommended.     

Effect of cooking process on the deoxynivalenol content and its subsequent cytotoxicity in wheat products

The retention of deoxynivalenol in noodles and bread made from naturally-contaminated flour was examined by a chemical analysis (HPLC) and bioassays. The retention level of deoxynivalenol obtained from both assays was reduced by boiling process, although only the bioassays showed it to have been reduced by baking. This study is the first to estimate the exposure to deoxynivalenol from the consumption of the final products of wheat flour in Japan.     

Influence of water activity on deoxynivalenol accumulation in wheat

The influence of water activity (a_w) on deoxynivalenol accumulation in wheat at 25°C was studied. Gnotobiotic grains were conditioned at different a_w levels, inoculated with a toxigenic Fusarium graminearum strain, and incubated for ten weeks. The highest accumulation of deoxynivalenol (1130 ug/kg) was detected at a_w 0.980. At a_w 0.945 and 0.925 the maximum quantities of toxin accumulated were 113 ug/kg and 93 ug/kg respectively. Deoxynivalenol was not detected in the substrate at a_w 0.900. Results suggest that intermediate a_w levels (0.97 – 0.92) are particularly critical at post harvest time because those are conditions under which deoxynivalenol production is most likely to be initiated naturally.     

Phytotoxicity of deoxynivalenol to wheat calli

The main objective of this study was to determine the toxicity of DON (deoxynivalenol) in wheat tissue culture after two weeks of contact. It was observed that increase of toxin concentration in medium caused decrease of regeneration ability of the calli. Three tested genotypes showed different sensitivity to 25 ppm of DON.     

Occurrence of moniliformin,deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone in durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.)

Forty-eight durum wheat samples from 5 locations in Austria were examined forFusarium infection andFusarium toxin content.F.gramlnearum andF.avenaceum were by far the prevailingFusarium species In durum wheat kernels, followed byEpoae, F.culmorum, andF.equlsetl. Ion-paired HPLC analyses of the samples showed moniliformin contents of kernels up to 0.88 mg/kg. All moniliformin contaminated samples also contained high levels of deoxynivalenol (up to 8.2 mg/kg) and lower levels of zearalenone (<0.33 mg/kg). The levels of zearalenone in naturally contaminated durum wheat samples did not correspond to the high yields of zearalenone found in cultures of the fusaria isolated from the durum wheat kernels. These conflicting results as well as some toxicologlcal aspects of the carry over ofFusarium toxins from durum wheat kernels into pasta are discussed.     

Effects of strobilurin containing fungicides on the deoxynivalenol content in winter wheat

The effects of the strobilurin fungicides Juwel, Juwel Top and Amistar on the deoxynivalenol contamination of winter wheat was studied in field experiments. In general, the application of strobilurins during stem elongation and inflorescence emergence of wheat resulted in increased deoxynivalenol contents in kernels as compared with the untreated control. This stimulating effect can be reversed by a following azole fungicide applied within a time period of one week during the stages of flowering.     

Effect of arabinogalactan isolated from Siberian larch on the baking value of soft wheat flour and bread quality

Using additives of arabinogalactan (AG) isolated from Siberian larch, we examined the soft wheat flour quality and quantity of gluten, physical properties of the dough, and quality of finished bread depending on the quantity of the added polysaccharide. In the case of the addition of 1–3% of AG to flour, its content decreases in the final product. An excess amount of AG inhibits yeast growth, which leads to a decrease in bread quality. The optimum addition of AG to flour is 1%, at which the technological properties of flour and dough do not change significantly, but the quality of bread becomes remarkably better; furthermore, arabinogalactan is fully consumed in the course of bread preparation. The use of AG is recommended in the optimum dose for increasing the quality of baked goods.     

Effect of individual Sumai 3 chromosomes on resistance to scab spread within spikes and deoxynivalenol accumulation within kernels in wheat

Two sets of substitution lines were developed by crossing individual monosomic lines of Chinese Spring (recipient) with scab (Fusarium graminearum) resistant cultivar Sumai 3 (donor) and then using the monosomics as the recurrent male parent for four backcrosses (without selfing after each backcross). The disomic substitution lines were separated from selfed BC4F2 plants. Chromosome specific SSR markers were analyzed for polymorphism between Sumai 3 and Chinese Spring. Polymorphic markers were used to identify substitution lines for specific chromosomes. Based on the specific SSR markers, chromosome substitutions occurred in thirty-six lines, and six lines segregated alleles from the two parents or were homozygous for the allele from Chinese Spring. These substitution lines were used to evaluate Type II (spread within the head) and Type V (deoxynivalenol accumulation within kernels) scab resistance. The objective was to use the substitution lines to evaluate the effect of individual chromosomes of Sumai 3 on Type 11 and Type V scab resistance in the greenhouse. Significant differences in Type II scab resistance and deoxynivalenol (DON) levels among different Chinese Spring (Sumai 3) substitution lines were detected. Positive chromosome substitution effects on Type II scab resistance were found on chromosomes 2B, 3B. 6B, and 7A from Sumai 3. Chromosomes 3B and 7A also reduced DON accumulation within the kernels, while chromosomes IB, 2D, and 4D from Sumai 3 increased DON concentration. Chromosome 7A from Sumai 3 had the largest effect on resistance to scab spread and DON accumulation. Additional research is in progress on the scab resistance conferred by chromosome 7A.     

Fusarium graminearum and deoxynivalenol contamination in the durum wheat area of Argentina

Fusarium graminearum head blight of wheat is a destructive disease of the world's wheat-growing areas. This work was performed to analyze the distribution and contamination of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its relationship with F. graminearum kernel invasion in Argentina durum wheat area during two consecutive harvests. A total of 147 samples (cultivars and lines) of durum wheat from 5 locations of the major cropping area (Southern Buenos Aires Province) were analyzed. Percentage of F. graminearum kernel infection was evaluated following the blotter test (ISTA method) and fusarotoxins were analyzed by thin layer chromatography. None of the varieties and lines were free of F. graminearum infection. In the first harvest fungal invasion was very low. From 40 samples, 55% showed DON contamination but only 4 samples (10%) were higher than 2 ppm. In the second harvest, a crop year conducive to scab development, the highest level of F. graminearum kernel invasion observed was 42% on a sample from the humid area (eastern Buenos Aires Province) DON was detected in 47 (78.2%) of 60 samples analyzed and 19 (31.6%) showed levels of DON higher than those established in the guidelines in Canada and USA for food and feedstuff. In both years all locations situated in the humid area showed levels ranging from 0 to > 8 ppm. Within the durum wheat area differences among locations were found. This analysis indicates the need for more information on the problem and distribution of Fusarium mycotoxins in durum wheat grown in Argentina.     

Identification of a UDP-glucosyltransferase conferring deoxynivalenol resistance in Aegilops tauschii and wheat

Aegilops tauschii is the diploid progenitor of the wheat D subgenome and a valuable resource for wheat breeding, yet, genetic analysis of resistance against Fusarium head blight (FHB) and the major Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is lacking. We treated a panel of 147 Ae. tauschii accessions with either Fusarium graminearum spores or DON solution and recorded the associated disease spread or toxin-induced bleaching. A k-mer-based association mapping pipeline dissected the genetic basis of resistance and identified candidate genes. After DON infiltration nine accessions revealed severe bleaching symptoms concomitant with lower conversion rates of DON into the non-toxic DON-3-O-glucoside. We identified the gene AET5Gv20385300 on chromosome 5D encoding a uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucosyltransferase (UGT) as the causal variant and the mutant allele resulting in a truncated protein was only found in the nine susceptible accessions. This UGT is also polymorphic in hexaploid wheat and when expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae only the full-length gene conferred resistance against DON. Analysing the D subgenome helped to elucidate the genetic control of FHB resistance and identified a UGT involved in DON detoxification in Ae. tauschii and hexaploid wheat. This resistance mechanism is highly conserved since the UGT is orthologous to the barley UGT HvUGT13248 indicating descent from a common ancestor of wheat and barley.     

Simultaneous occurrence of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and aflatoxin in 1982 scabby wheat from the midwestern United States

Thirty-three samples of wheat of the 1982 crop year from Kansas and Nebraska were analyzed for deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, zearalenone, and aflatoxin. Deoxynivalenol was identified in 31 of 33 samples, zearalenone was identified in 3 of 33 samples, and aflatoxin B1 was identified in 23 of 31 samples. One 1982 wheat sample from Illinois and one from Texas were also contaminated with deoxynivalenol at 1,200 and 600 ng/g, respectively. None of the samples contained detectable T-2 toxin. The mean concentration of deoxynivalenol was 1,782 +/- 262 ng/g, and the concentrations of aflatoxin B1 ranged from 0.8 to 17.0 ng/g, with a mean of 3.37 +/- 0.7. Zearalenone concentrations of the three positive samples were 35, 90, and 115 ng/g. However, density segregation of two other samples which tested negative yielded light fractions, comprising less than 2% of the samples, contaminated at 230 and 254 ng of zearalenone per g; calculated zearalenone concentrations for these two samples were below the limit of detection of the method. The high frequency of aflatoxin B1 and deoxynivalenol in wheat from the 1982 crop is unprecedented, as is the simultaneous contamination of some samples with deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and aflatoxin B1.     

Stability of baking quality in bread wheat using several statistical parameters

Stability of quality in bread wheat was investigated for the first time with the alveograph test, a rheological test providing four technological traits. Assessment of stability was reliable because a large set of varieties (ten) were grown over a wide range of environments (14). Varieties and environments were representative of French agricultural practices. A procedure to evaluate stability of quality is proposed. Stability was measured by ecovalence, which was then modelled to determine response to environments for each genotype. A joint regression model was compared to a biadditive model with two multiplicative terms. The regression model explained a very much smaller part of ecovalence than the biadditive model. The latter made it possible to pool cultivars for genotypexenvironment interactions and to characterize varieties for their responsiveness to environments. Two check varieties for stability and instability were identified.     

Natural occurrence of deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol,nivalenol, 4,7-dideoxynivalenol,and zearalenone in polish wheat

Three wheat samples collected in 1987 in Central Poland and naturally infected withFusarium spp were analyzed for the presence ofFusarium spp andFusarium toxins. Heads were separated into three fractions: kernels with visibleFusarium damage, healthy looking kernels, and chaff + rachis. The samples contained deoxynivalenol (2.0 – 40.0μg/g), nivalenol (O.O1μg/g), 4,7-dideoxynivalenol (0.10 – 0.15μg/g). 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (0.10–2.00 μg/g), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (O/1Oμg/g), and zearalenone (0.01–2.00μg/g). This is the first report about 15 - acetyldeoxynivalenol in European wheat and the co-occurrence of 3 - acetyldeoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol in the same sample of contaminated cereals.     

Purification of biosilica from living diatoms by a two-step acid cleaning and baking method

Due to their sustainability, intact cell walls, availability of pure cultures, and others, living diatoms show a lot of promise for the application in various fields in particular for micro/nano-devices. In order to purify the biosilica structures of diatoms called frustules, a two-step acid cleaning and baking method was employed. By this path, organic matter and inorganic impurities can be removed very effectively. In addition, the highest quality of frustules was achieved when the samples were cleaned in an excess of boiling 10~15 % HCl and subsequently heated to 600 °C at a heating rate of 3 °C min^?1 for 6 h. In our operation, the native frustule morphology was maintained completely, and dry frustules with more than 90 % SiO₂ in weight can be obtained, and furthermore, the surface area of them reached a good value of 48.47 m² g^?1.     

Fungal diversity and natural occurrence of fusaproliferin,beauvericin, deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in wheat cultivated in Santa Fe Province,Argentina

The Fusarium diversity and the mycobiota associated with moldy wheat kernels from Santa Fe province, Argentine, was assessed. The wheat cultivated area in Santa Fe province is divided according to agrometeorological conditions into two zones: Zone I (north-central) and Zone II (south). The natural occurrence of Fusarium toxins BEA, FUP, DON and NIV was also determined. Cladosporium was the most abundant of the 19 genera identified, followed by Fusarium, Phoma and Alternaria. Zone II shows a predominance of F. graminearum and F. culmorum. In Zone I, DON was present in 13/32 samples (range 0.43–3.60 mg kg⁻¹) and NIV in 6/32 samples (range 0.11–0.40 mg kg⁻¹). In zone II, DON was found in 11/21 samples (range 0.57–9.50 mg kg⁻¹) and NIV in 4/21 samples (range 0.10–0.60 mg kg⁻¹). BEA and FP were not detected in both zones.