Anthracological analysis from Kovacevo, southwest Bulgaria: woodland vegetation and its use during the earliest stages of the European Neolithic

Wood charcoal analysis from Kovacevo in southwest Bulgaria, one of the earliest Neolithic sites in southeastern Europe, provided information about the first stages of anthropogenic impact on vegetation during the Early Neolithic (6159–5630 cal b.c.). Deciduous oak was the most abundant and frequently used taxon in the wood charcoal assemblages. Cornus charcoal was also abundant, probably connected with the use of its twigs as building material in wattle and daub structures. The dominant deciduous oak forest was opened during the Kovacevo I period, as shown by evidence from the Kovacevo Ia and Kovacevo Ib occupation phases. Other types of vegetation, like Black pine (Pinus nigra) woodland, riverine forests and some sub-Mediterranean elements, were used only sporadically, indicating high and sustained availability of wood resources in the oak forests. Anthropogenic impacts were gradual, a pattern that matches contemporary studies elsewhere in the region.     

Mid- and late-Holocene vegetation and fire history at Biviere di Gela, a coastal lake in southern Sicily, Italy

The vegetation and fire history of few coastal sites has been investigated in the Mediterranean region so far. We present the first paleoecological reconstruction from coastal Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. We analysed pollen and charcoal in the sediments of Biviere di Gela, a lake (lagoon) on the south coast of Sicily. Our data suggest that the area became afforested after a marine transgression at ca. 7200 cal b.p. (5250 b.c.). Build-up of forest and shrublands took ca. 200–300 years, mainly with the deciduous trees Quercus, Ostrya and Fraxinus. Juniperus expanded ca. 6900 cal b.p. (4950 b.c.), but declined again 6600 cal b.p. (4650 b.c.). Afterwards, evergreen trees (Q. ilex-type and Olea) became dominant in the forest and Pistacia shrublands were established. Forest and shrubland reached a maximum ca. 7000–5000 cal b.p. (5050–3050 b.c.); subsequently forest declined in response to human impact, which was probably exacerbated by a general trend towards a more arid climate. During the Neolithic, fire was used to open the landscape, significantly reducing several arboreal taxa (Q. ilex, Fraxinus, Juniperus) and promoting herbs and shrubs (Achillea, Cichorioideae, Brassicaceae, Ephedra). Final forest disruption occurred around 2600 cal b.p. (650 b.c.) with the onset of the historically documented Greek colonization. We conclude that the open maquis and garrigue vegetation of today is primarily the consequence of intensive land-use over millennia. Under natural or near-natural conditions arboreal taxa such as Q. ilex, Olea and Pistacia would be far more important than they are today, even under the hot and rather dry coastal conditions of southern Sicily.     

Late Holocene vegetation, fire, climate and upper forest line dynamics in the Podocarpus National Park, southeastern Ecuador

Late Holocene vegetation, fire, climate and upper forest line dynamics were studied based on detailed pollen and charcoal analyses. Two sediment cores, from the Rabadilla de Vaca mire (RVM) and the Valle Peque?o bog (VP), with an age of about 2100 and 1630 cal yrs b.p., respectively, were taken at the modern upper forest line in the Parque Nacional Podocarpus (Podocarpus National Park) in southeastern Ecuador. The two pollen records reflect relatively stable vegetation with slight changes in floral composition during the recorded period. Changes of the proportion between subpáramo and páramo vegetation are related to lower and higher frequency of fires. The RVM records show that the upper forest line moved to a higher elevation between 1630 and 880 cal yrs b.p., stabilising after 310 cal yrs b.p. Human impact is suggested by a high fire frequency, mainly between 1800–1600 and 880–310 cal yrs b.p. The VP records indicate no marked changes in the upper forest line. The charcoal records suggest an increased human impact from 230 cal yrs b.p. to the present. The results indicate that high fire frequency is an important factor in reducing the expansion of subpáramo vegetation and upper montane rainforest and in favouring the distribution of grass páramo. Since there is a clear correlation between fire and vegetation dynamics, it is difficult to detect how far climate change also played a significant role in upper forest line changes during the late Holocene.     

High-resolution studies on vegetation succession, hydrological variations, anthropogenic impact and genesis of a subrecent lake in southern Ecuador

A lake sediment record from Laguna Campana at 2,488 m a.s.l. in the eastern Ecuadorian Andes allows the reconstruction of local environmental conditions over the past ~500 years. A high-resolution multi-proxy approach using pollen, spore, charcoal and XRF analyses provides information about lake genesis, hydrological variations and the development of the surrounding vegetation. Results suggest that Laguna Campana originated from a landslide, which are naturally common and anthropogenically promoted in the study area. Human activities, e.g. deforestation or slash and burn cultivation, impacted the local vegetation development and biodiversity during the recorded period. After a first dense layer of pioneer grasses developed on open soil around the small lake, successional stages of secondary upper mountain rainforest forest mainly composed of Alnus and Weinmannia were observed. The record shows no signs of dense forest regeneration but rather open vegetation with trees and a grassy understory. Especially since ca. a.d. 1980, the proportion of forest in the area was reduced, most probably by fire use for pastures, cultivation and wood extraction. Hydrological variability was derived from differences in minerogenic input and variations in Botryococcus braunii and Sphagnum occurrence. After wettest conditions at the study site, probably triggering the landslide, humid conditions persisted until a time of drier conditions between a.d. 1900 and 1960. A subsequent return to wetter conditions was observed over the last decades. XRF analyses suggest an increase in deposition of atmospherically derived lead since the formation of the lake.     

Late holocene environments in Las Tablas de Daimiel (south central Iberian peninsula,Spain)

The use of a high resolution pollen record in combination with geochemical data from sediments composed mainly of layers of charophytes alternating with layers of vegetal remains plus some detrital beds permits the reconstruction of the environmental evolution of the last 3000 years in an inland wetland of the Mediterranean domain, thus introducing a new climatic dataset for the Late Holocene. Hydrological fluctuations, reflected in the relationship between emerged and aquatic vegetation and inorganic and organic C and N changes, can be related to aridity or humid phases, while relations among arboreal taxa (Quercus and Pinus) and Artemisia are used as temperature indicators. Five climatic periods have been identified: a Subatlantic Cold Period (<150 b.c.), cold and arid; the Roman Warm Period (150 b.c.–a.d. 270), warmer and wetter; the Dark Ages (a.d. 270–a.d. 950), colder and drier; the Medieval Warm Period (a.d. 950–a.d. 1400), warmer and wetter; and the Little Ice Age (>a.d. 1400) indicated by a cooling and drying trend. Despite the lack of any direct evidence of human action, there are some episodes related to deforestation during the Reconquista (Middle Ages) that mask the real climatic signal.     

A three thousand year succession of plant communities on a valley bottom in the Vosges Mountains, NE France, reconstructed from fossil pollen, plant macrofossils, and modern phytosociological communities

Pollen and macrofossils were studied in a core from a fen at the foot of a slope in the Vosges Mountains, NE France. The present-day vegetation of little disturbed Abies, Fagus, and Picea forest and wetlands has been described in detail in terms of phytosociological communities using the Braun-Blanquet approach. Past ecological conditions are reconstructed in five steps: (1) The modern vegetation types are described as combinations of phytosociological species groups. (2) Micro- and macrofossils are assigned to these groups. (3) These in combination determine the past vegetation types at the site; there were simultaneously several such types in some biozones. (4) The sequence of past vegetation types is interpreted as successional pathways. (5) Past ecological conditions are inferred from these pathways. Results are: (1) The types of local forest and fen were the same around 1000 b.c. as today. (2) Rising groundwater around 650 b.c. caused a natural wet meadow to develop at the site. (3) Trees were felled near the site in the first century b.c. (Late Iron Age), facilitating the immigration of Picea. (4) Groundwater level rose during early Medieval times because of a wetter climate and alder carr replaced the dry-soil forest close to the site. (5) During High Medieval Times (10th–13th century) the nearby raised bog expanded over the site. (6) Forestry starting around a.d. 1750 caused nutrient-rich water to reach the site, resulting in abrupt vegetation change. (7) The creation of a forest road around a.d. 1855 (historical information) caused further nutrient enrichment of the site. The validity of the method used depends on the assumption that past and present vegetation types are virtually identical, which is true in our study area and study period, according to all the indications that we have.     

Plant economy of hunter-gatherer groups at the end of the last Ice Age: plant macroremains from the cave of Santa Maira (Alacant, Spain) ca. 12000–9000 b.p.

Up till now, plant macroremains of hunter-gatherer groups at the end of the last Ice Age and the very early Holocene have very rarely been investigated on the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere. The use of systematic recovery techniques at the archaeological cave site of Santa Maira has allowed the recovery of a large amount of plant remains (fruits, seeds and wood) from Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic levels (12000–9000 b.p.) Charcoal analysis has allowed us to reconstruct the surrounding vegetation of the site. In the valley bottoms mesophilous woodland with Quercus was present even in the lowest layers (Upper Magdalenian) During the Late-glacial Juniperus was very important, in the early Holocene Quercus (both evergreen and deciduous) took over. Large numbers of macroremains of fruits (Quercus sp., Sorbus sp., Olea sp. and Vitis sp.) were found, but a significant quantity of legumes together with a few grass seeds have also been identified. This assemblage most probably represents the gathering of wild plant resources by the inhabitants of the cave, and allows us to reconstruct some of the food gathered from plant resources.     

A palynological study of the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel

The results are discussed of the palynological (pollen-analytical) examination of a sediment section in the Hula Valley of northern Israel, with evidence of Acheulian occupation dated to 700,000–800,000 b.p. In general there is a fair agreement between the palynological data and the wood remains identified from the site, but there are also discrepancies, some of which can be explained and others not. Although relatively well represented in the pollen record, Pinus (pine) most probably did not occur in the Hula area. Some pollen types are thought to have been carried in from hundreds of kilometres away (long-distance transport). Together the pollen and wood evidence suggests that Quercus ithaburensis–Pistacia atlantica (Tabor oak–Atlantic terebinth) woodland (open forest) was found in the Hula Valley (other than the lake and marshes) and on the lower reaches of the mountains flanking the valley on both sides. In addition to deciduous Tabor oak, evergreen Kermes oak (Quercus calliprinos) must have been an important component of this woodland. Wild olive (Olea europaea var. oleaster) may also have been quite common here. The suggestion of open forest, with fairly widely spaced trees, is based upon the high non-arboreal pollen frequencies and indicates fairly dry climatic conditions. Various stream-bank trees and shrubs are represented in the pollen and/or wood records, such as Fraxinus (ash), Ulmus (elm), Salix (willow) and Platanus (plane tree). During the period represented by the upper section of the pollen diagram, Cedrus (cedar) must have reached the Hula area, indicating increased humidity. In the steppe-like field layer (undergrowth of the woodland) grasses (Gramineae) must have played a prominent role in addition to a great number of other species. In particular Compositae and Umbelliferae include a large variety of species (many different pollen types). Two Chenopodiaceae maxima, coinciding with Gramineae minima, are thought to be indicative of periods of increased climatic dryness. The local lake and marsh vegetation is fairly well represented in the pollen record, but interpretation in terms of vegetation succession is only possible to some degree. Mention is made here of Trapa natans (water chestnut), the nuts of which were consumed by the Acheulian inhabitants. Sytze Bottema: Deceased in 2005.     

On the patterns of abundance and diversity of macrolichens of Chopta-Tunganath in the Garhwal Himalaya

A total of 3211 colonies of macrolichens, from twelve 50 m × 10 m plots distributed across four macrohabitat (vegetation) types between 1500 m–3700 m in the Chopta-Tunganath landscape of the Garhwal Himalaya, yielded 13 families with 15 genera and 85 species.Lobaria retigera stood out as a broad-niched generalist species with moderate levels of abundance in all the three major microhabitats, viz. rock, soil and wood across 83% of all the plots sampled, whereasUmbilicaria indica emerged as an abundantly occurring specialist confined to rock substrates.Heterodermia incana andLeptogium javanicum appeared to be rare members of the community as they were encountered only once during the field survey. Woody microhabitats turned out to be richer than rock and soil substrates for macrolichens. Amongst the macrohabitats, middle altitude (2500–2800 m)Quercus forest was richest in species and genera followed by high altitude (2900–3200 m)Rhododendron forest, higher altitude grasslands (3300–3700 m) and then the lower elevation (1500 m)Quercus forest. Species, genus and family level alphaas well as beta-diversities were significantly correlated with each other, implying that higher taxonomic ranks such as genera may be used as surrogates for species thus facilitating cost- and time-effective periodic monitoring of the biodiversity of macrolichens. Dynamics of the diversity of lichen communities in relation to various forms of environmental disturbance including livestock grazing and tourism as dominant land use activities in the higher Himalaya need further research.     

Palaeoecological studies at the Kaliakra area, northeastern Bulgarian Black Sea coast: 6000?years of natural and anthropogenic change

A 7.5 m sediment core from Lake Bolata, a small former coastal liman lake in northeastern Bulgaria, was analyzed for pollen and plant macrofossil content in attempt to trace the changes in the vegetation, human impact and the influence of the Black Sea during the last ca. 6,000 years. Lake Bolata started its existence when the rising Black Sea level reached the elevation of the bottom of the depression. By that time nearly all tree species were already present in this area with the exception of Carpinus orientalis. The comparison of the arrival time of oriental hornbeam at different sites along the Bulgarian Black Sea confirmed the reliability of the local radiocarbon chronology. For the period under study the vegetation of the region around the site can be described as a forest-steppe due to NAP values higher than 40% of the pollen sum. Forests on the slopes of the river canyon consisted of Quercus spp., Acer, Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, Fagus and possibly Tilia. Riverine forests formed stands composed of Salix, Alnus, Ulmus, Fraxinus, Carpinus betulus and Vitis as a liana. The vegetation on the Cape Kaliakra plateau, bordering the canyon, was dominated by diverse herbs and most of these could be considered xerophytes. The oldest occupation period belongs to the Eneolithic, documented by the occurrences of Triticum-type pollen at 5570–5170 cal b.p. (3620–3220 b.c.). The next period of higher continuous Cerealia-type values corresponds to 3450–1830 cal b.p. (1500 b.c.–a.d. 120). The macrofossil record chiefly provides evidence about plant communities of aquatics and helophytes.     

Late Holocene palaeoecology of Lago Verde: evidence of human impact and climate change in the northern limit of the neotropics during the late formative and classic periods

Multiproxy analysis (pollen, diatom, charcoal) on a 6 m core from Lago Verde (Sierra de Los Tuxtlas), shows evidences of environmental changes and human impact on the evergreen rainforest on the tropical lowlands of eastern Mexico during the last ca. 2,800 years. Prehistoric human occupation is recorded since the late Formative throughout the middle Classic (250 b.c.–ca. a.d. 800) by the presence of maize pollen, a low abundance of tropical arboreal taxa and a high abundance of herbaceous pollen and charcoal particles. This occurred under a scenario of very low lake levels from which dry conditions are inferred based on the dominance of aerophilous and periphytic diatom taxa. After ca. a.d. 800 the site was abandoned and forest regeneration started, at the same time higher lake levels, an indication of more humid conditions, were established. In the absence of human disturbance, tropical forest regeneration was rapid (ca. 200 years). Fluctuations in pollen composition during times of low human population at the site are related to climate variability, with the highest tropical forest diversity and lake levels recorded during the Little Ice Age. Modern human impact is also recorded and compared with the prehistoric deforestation event. Comparison with palaeoecological records from Yucatan and the highlands of central Mexico offers a Mesoamerican perspective of climatic variability giving evidence that the late Formative and early to middle Classic demographic expansion occurred under a scenario of climates dryer than present, with the Postclassic characterized by moister conditions. The end of the Classic (ca. a.d. 800–1000) is identified as a period of rapid climate change which marks one of the most important cultural transitions in Mesoamerica.     

Vegetation history of the SE section of the Zagros Mountains during the last five millennia; a pollen record from the Maharlou Lake, Fars Province, Iran

A pollen diagram was derived from a 150 cm core taken from the shallow hypersaline Lake Maharlou in the south-eastern part of the Zagros Mountains, SW Iran. The pollen record shows that Quercus brantii woodland and Pistacia–Amygdalus scrub dominated the area during the late Holocene. The record starts at around 5700 cal b.p. with a dry period during which both Pistacia–Amygdalus scrub and Quercus brantii woodland were at their minimum extent. This period was followed by the expansion of Pistacia–Amygdalus scrub in the area and the spread of Quercus brantii woodlands at higher altitudes. An important occupation phase, characterized by the appearance of several cultivated tree species such as Juglans, Olea, Vitis and Platanus, started at ca. 4300 cal b.p., coinciding with the onset of the Bronze Age civilization of Jiroft in Central Iran. Human activities become very clear after 3700 cal b.p. Around 2700 cal b.p., extensive stands of Pistacia–Amygdalus scrub became profoundly degraded, presumably under strong human pressure coinciding with the beginning of the Persian Empires. The maximum expansion of the Quercus brantii woodland occurred about 2100 to 1700 cal b.p. This woodland remained relatively stable until the end of the diagram at 400 cal b.p.     

Plant Species with Potential as Food,Nesting Material,or Tools at a Chimpanzee Refuge Site in Caddo Parish,Louisiana

Surplus chimpanzees live in research laboratories where they will likely remain for the rest of their lives. An alternative to laboratory housing is an outdoor enclosure in a warm climate. Before construction, researchers should conduct a vegetation survey because chimpanzees use vegetation daily. Chimp Haven, Inc. is developing a chimpanzee sanctuary in Caddo Parish, Louisiana, and we conducted a vegetation survey at the site to 1) characterize the abundance and structure of vegetation; 2) identify plants with utility as food, nesting material, or tools; 3) determine the abundance and distribution of useful vegetation; and 4) identify any possibly hazardous vegetation. We established 48 plots, quantified the woody vegetation, and identified potentially useful and hazardous plant species from the published literature. Vegetation at the site was secondary growth from logging of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), the most abundant tree. Other abundant trees included oak (Quercus spp.), elm (Ulmus spp.), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and maple (Acer spp.). Small plants (1–9.9 m tall) constituted 95% of all vegetation. Forty-one of 64 plant species have edible vegetative parts, while 35 species have edible reproductive parts. We identified 55 potential nesting trees by size (dbh ≥ 25 cm) and 4 species used as tools by captive great apes. Useful vegetation was concentrated in areas with topographic relief or in a floodplain, while flat areas with fields had less. We recommend that the floodplain be cropped for fruit and browse and enclosures encompass areas with relief and fields, creating a diverse habitat.     

Four thousand years of vegetation and fire history in the spruce forests of northern Kyrgyzstan (Kungey Alatau,Central Asia)

Analyses of pollen, macrofossils and microscopic charcoal in the sediment of a small sub-alpine lake (Karakol, Kyrgyzstan) provide new data to reconstruct the vegetation history of the Kungey Alatau spruce forest during the late-Holocene, i.e. the past 4,000 years. The pollen data suggest that Picea schrenkiana F. and M. was the dominant tree in this region from the beginning of the record. The pollen record of pronounced die-backs of the forests, along with lithostratigraphical evidence, points to possible climatic cooling (and/or drying) around 3,800 cal year b.p. and between 3,350 and 2,520 cal year b.p., with a culmination at 2,800–2,600 cal b.p., although stable climatic conditions are reported for this region for the past 3,000–4,000 years in previous studies. From 2,500 to 190 cal year b.p. high pollen values of P. schrenkiana suggest rather closed and dense forests under the environmental conditions of that time. A marked decline in spruce forests occurred with the onset of modern human activities in the region from 190 cal year b.p. These results show that the present forests are anthropogenically reduced and represent only about half of their potential natural extent. As P. schrenkiana is a species endemic to the western Tien Shan, it is most likely that its refugium was confined to this region. However, our palaeoecological record is too recent to address this hypothesis thoroughly.     

Prehistoric Pinus woodland dynamics in an upland landscape in northern Scotland: the roles of climate change and human impact

Pollen, microscopic charcoal, palaeohydrological and dendrochronological analyses are applied to a radiocarbon and tephrochronologically dated mid Holocene (ca. 8500–3000 cal b.p.) peat sequence with abundant fossil Pinus (pine) wood. The Pinus populations on peat fluctuated considerably over the period in question. Colonisation by Pinus from ca. 7900–7600 cal b.p. appears to have had no specific environmental trigger; it was probably determined by the rate of migration from particular populations. The second phase, at ca. 5000–4400 cal b.p., was facilitated by anthropogenic interference that reduced competition from other trees. The pollen record shows two Pinus declines. The first at ca. 6200–5500 cal b.p. was caused by a series of rapid and frequent climatic shifts. The second, the so-called pine decline, was very gradual (ca. 4200–3300 cal b.p.) at Loch Farlary and may not have been related to climate change as is often supposed. Low intensity but sustained grazing pressures were more important. Throughout the mid Holocene, the frequency and intensity of burning in these open Pinus–Calluna woods were probably highly sensitive to hydrological (climatic) change. Axe marks on several trees are related to the mid to late Bronze Age, i.e., long after the trees had died.     

T’ef (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eragrostis tef</Emphasis>) in Ancient Agricultural Systems of Highland Ethiopia

T’ef ( Eragrostis tef ) in Ancient Agricultural Systems of Highland Ethiopia. T’ef (Eragrostis tef) has been cultivated in the Horn of Africa for at least 2,000 years. The earliest known agricultural systems in this region date to the Pre-Aksumite period (800–400 b.c.) and appear to have focused on Near Eastern crops, with indigenous African species increasing in importance during Aksumite times (400 b.c.–a.d. 700). While palaeoethnobotanical data are available from Pre-Aksumite and late Aksumite periods, macroscopic botanical remains from the site of Ona Nagast, northern Ethiopia, provide a first glimpse of agricultural systems dating to Proto-Aksumite (400–50 b.c.), Early to Classic (50 b.c.–a.d. 340), and Post-Aksumite (a.d. 700–900) times. Archaeological t’ef remains from Ona Nagast are examined in detail. Guidelines are developed for the identification of t’ef grains preserved on archaeological sites, with a focus on how to differentiate them from seeds of wild Eragrostis species. Charring experiments reveal that in some cases t’ef may not survive high temperatures tolerated by larger cereal grains, such as wheat and barley. The domestication history of t’ef appears to be different from some other cereals, a factor which may explain the preponderance of indeterminate Eragrostis seeds in archaeological samples. Selection of large seed size and intensified tillage were not key factors in t’ef domestication. Early cultivators were likely selecting for increased branching and higher percentage seed set under conditions of minimal tillage.     

Archaeobotanical data and crop storage evidence from an early Bronze Age 2 burnt house at Arslantepe, Malatya, Turkey

Excavations on the southwest area at Arslantepe, Malatya, Turkey, by far the largest tell on the Malatya plain from the 5th millennium to the Neo-Hittite age, revealed an important change in the settlement patterns during the two main levels of the VI C Period of the site (Early Bronze Age 2, 2750–2500 cal b.c.). The latter level corresponds to a village founded on neatly shaped terraces in a layout which lasted for centuries, well into the following Early Bronze Age 3. This continuity was not broken even by violent fires that at times destroyed some houses, producing a huge quantity of charred plant remains, which comprised fruits, seeds and wood charcoal. The archaeobotanical data so far obtained from the EB2 house A607, the richest one in macro-remains, on which efforts have been concentrated first, provides much data about the use of the surrounding land. Charcoal of Quercus (deciduous oaks) (85%) followed by Populus (poplar) (9%) are dominant among wood remains, while Hordeum (barley) (70%) is the dominant crop found, followed by Cicer (chickpea) (17%). The crop storage methods were investigated by mapping the positions of charred fruits and seeds both according to the grid system and in comparison to the layout of facilities (grinding stone, hearths, oven) and the distribution of pottery (jars, bowls, pots) in order to detect where the crops were kept and the ways in which they were stored, processed, and used. The house facilities and furniture suggest that the house was a multifunctional place, which included storage space, but which was limited to household needs. The new archaeobotanical investigation so far carried out on the burnt house A607 suggests some implications on the degree of agriculture, on crop storage and on food processing practises and also gives information on the natural landscape surrounding the site.     

Human impact during the Bronze Age on the vegetation at Lago Lucone (northern Italy)

Lake-sediment records were used to reconstruct human impact on the landscape around Lago Lucone (45°33′N, 10°29′E, 249 m a.s.l.), a former lake in the western amphitheatre system of the Lago di Garda. Presence of prehistoric human populations is attested by pile-dwelling settlements from the Early-Middle Bronze Age, with one settlement at a distance of only 100 m from the coring site. Pollen, plant-macrofossil and microscopic charcoal analyses were applied to a 250 cm sediment core with four dates providing the time control. A mixed oak forest that was important during the Early-Middle Holocene was cleared and replaced by open vegetation during the Bronze Age (∼2000–1100 b.c.) when open lands were estimated to have covered more than 60% of the total relevant pollen-source area. During a phase of high human impact, independent climatic proxies suggest warm and dry climatic conditions. Later, ca. 1100 b.c., palaeobotanical evidence indicates a sharp decrease in human pressure in the Lago Lucone area. The comparison with other sedimentary palaeocultural records shows that the period 1300–1100 b.c. was characterised by general declines of agricultural activities both south and north of the Alps. These declines have been previously attributed to a change towards wetter and colder climatic conditions in and around the Alps. However, the decline in human impact around Lago Lucone cannot be exclusively attributed to climatic variation. Therefore other forcing factors independent of climatic changes, such as cultural crises or changes in spatial organisation of the habitats, cannot be ruled out under the present state of knowledge.     

Economy and environment of Bronze Age settlements – Terramaras – on the Po Plain (Northern Italy): first results from the archaeobotanical research at the Terramara di Montale

The paper presents a synthesis of the on-site archaeobotanical investigations of the Terramara di Montale, one of the most important sites of the Terramara cultural system which characterised the Po Plain in the Middle-Late Bronze Age (1650–1200 b.c.). Samples for pollen analysis and macroremains, including seed/fruit and wood/charcoal records, were collected from stratigraphic sequences and occupation levels during the excavations 1996–2001. The results permitted the reconstruction of the main characteristics of the landscape which at the onset of the Terramara rapidly passed from a natural, more forested landscape with mixed oak wood and conifers to a more open and anthropic landscape characterised by cereal fields, pastures and meadows. People felled oaks and other trees such as Populus/Salix and Fraxinus to make piles or walls for houses. Wood from these species was also recorded as charcoal in the hearths. Palynological and carpological data show that the inhabitants of the Terramara largely founded their economy on cereals (mainly Triticum aestivum/durum, T. dicoccum and Hordeum vulgare). They also grew a few legumes (Vicia faba var. minor, Vicia sp. and Lens culinaris). There was also grazing by domestic animals, mainly ovicaprines but also pigs and cattle, and these were fed exploiting wild plants such as Carpinus. In the paper the four main steps of the history of the Terramara are described (before the Terramara, the onset, the Terramara phase, the decline) during which both human influence and climatic changes were important. At the onset of the Terramara (around 1600 b.c.) a warm and possibly dry phase occurred. The intense use of the territory and a climatic deterioration at around 1300 b.c. might have triggered the decline of the Terramara di Montale.     

Forest development during 6,300–3,000 yBP (Early to Late Jomon Periods) at the Akayama Site,central Japan

Fossil wood assemblages deposited during 6.300–3.000 yBP, are studied at the Akayama Site, central Japan. Layer III containing fossil woods was divided into three subunits according to intercalating tephras, and total 3618 fossil woods were studied. In the composition, deciduous broad-leaved trees dominated, accompanied by some evergreen conifers. In the diameter distribution, nine taxa accounted for nearly 90% of individuals exceeding 10 cm in diameter. Spatial distribution of nine major and three minor taxa and that of thick individuals clarified the following points: 1)Fraxinus established a lowland forest during 5,000–4,500 yBP, accompanied byAlnus sect.Gymnothyrsus, Acer andAesculus turbinata; 2) small trees ofAlnus sect.Gymnothyrsus extensively intermingled in the lowlandFraxinus forest during 4,500–3,000 yBP; 3)Quercus sect.Prinus and Castanea crenata constituted escarpment forests during 6,300–3,000 yBP; 4)Carpinus sect.Eucarpinus became a major component during 5,000–4,500 yBP, andOstrya japonica replacedCastanea crenata during 4,500–3,000 yBP. Comparison with the other five contemporaneous fossil wood assemblages shows prevalence ofFraxinus-dominant forests during the Late to Latest Jomon Periods in the southern part of the Kanto Plain.