Identifying multiple wildlife species-crop interactions using network analysis

Managing crop damage by wildlife is a complex challenge in agrarian-wildlife landscapes. Losses to farmers and their negative attitude towards crop-raiding wildlife, compromise wildlife conservation and farmer-wildlife coexistence. Priority crop types, crop-raiding wildlife and socio-ecological factors are highly integrated. Here we use cross-sectional network analysis as a conservation planning tool to simultaneously identify the crop types used by crop-raiding wildlife, and evaluate the importance of these crop-wildlife interactions relative to the socio-ecological factors that affect these interactions. The most vulnerable crops were maize, millet and fruit trees, while the most problematic crop-raiding wildlife were African elephant, bushpig, hippo, warthog and red-billed quelea. Crop damage declined with countermeasure effectiveness, farm size, and distance from river to farm, but increased with richness of attractive crops. Undamaged crops included cash crops, such as chili, onion, ginger, lemon grass and garlic. Applying network analysis to different crops and damage scenarios enables identification of the most important and influential crops, crop-raiding wildlife and socio-ecological factors needed to develop effective crop protection strategies.     

Troublesome neighbours: Changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda

Long-term human–wildlife sympatry depends on the willingness and capacity of local people to coexist with wild animals. With human population growth and deforestation for agriculture, farmers increasingly live in proximity to wildlife, including large mammals of conservation concern. Understanding local perspectives and concerns regarding wildlife is essential for informing appropriate management strategies that reduce conflicts and promote sustainable coexistence. Social science approaches therefore have a critical role in integrated conservation programmes. We undertook an attitude survey to understand residents’ perspectives about sharing a landscape with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an unprotected forest–agriculture mosaic in Uganda. Interviews (n = 134) in 12 villages demonstrate residents’ ambivalence towards living alongside these protected yet potentially troublesome mammals. Chimpanzee behaviour is reported to have undergone recent changes. Residents claim apes increasingly enter villages for food, threaten people, and pose a particular threat to children's safety. Chimpanzee numbers are believed to have increased locally. Most interviewees fear chimpanzees, considering them dangerous. Crop losses to chimpanzees were widely reported. Farmers tolerate raiding of domestic fruits, but not cash-crops. Results demonstrate that attitudes towards wildlife are not fixed. Reported changes to chimpanzee behaviour are challenging villagers’ traditionally benign attitude towards them. Even so, residents acknowledge benefits to chimpanzees because they reportedly displace other crop-raiding wildlife which, unlike chimpanzees, damage important staple food crops. Survey findings are contextualised with respect to recent, major land-use changes in Uganda (clearance of unprotected forest for timber and agriculture) that have precipitated a sharp rise in farmer–chimpanzee interactions. We discuss the study's broader implications for protected mammal management and conflict mitigation in human-dominated landscapes, and ask whether it is appropriate to expect impoverished rural farmers to accommodate large-bodied mammals that pose a potential threat to their safety and livelihoods.     

Assessing Patterns of Human-Wildlife Conflicts and Compensation around a Central Indian Protected Area

Mitigating crop and livestock loss to wildlife and improving compensation distribution are important for conservation efforts in landscapes where people and wildlife co-occur outside protected areas. The lack of rigorously collected spatial data poses a challenge to management efforts to minimize loss and mitigate conflicts. We surveyed 735 households from 347 villages in a 5154 km² area surrounding Kanha Tiger Reserve in India. We modeled self-reported household crop and livestock loss as a function of agricultural, demographic and environmental factors, and mitigation measures. We also modeled self-reported compensation received by households as a function of demographic factors, conflict type, reporting to authorities, and wildlife species involved. Seventy-three percent of households reported crop loss and 33% livestock loss in the previous year, but less than 8% reported human injury or death. Crop loss was associated with greater number of cropping months per year and proximity to the park. Livestock loss was associated with grazing animals inside the park and proximity to the park. Among mitigation measures only use of protective physical structures were associated with reduced livestock loss. Compensation distribution was more likely for tiger related incidents, and households reporting loss and located in the buffer. Average estimated probability of crop loss was 0.93 and livestock loss was 0.60 for surveyed households. Estimated crop and livestock loss and compensation distribution were higher for households located inside the buffer. Our approach modeled conflict data to aid managers in identifying potential conflict hotspots, influential factors, and spatially maps risk probability of crop and livestock loss. This approach could help focus allocation of conservation efforts and funds directed at conflict prevention and mitigation where high densities of people and wildlife co-occur.     

Diet and Feeding Ecology of Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Bulindi, Uganda: Foraging Strategies at the Forest–Farm Interface

Wild animals increasingly inhabit human-influenced environments such as forest fragments amid agricultural systems. Dietary studies provide a means of assessing wildlife responses to anthropogenic habitat changes. Chimpanzees are specialist frugivores that consume other plant parts, e.g., fibrous pith and leaves, in greater amounts during fruit shortages. I examined the plant diet and seasonal foraging strategies of chimpanzees inhabiting small forest fragments within a cultivated landscape in Uganda. I determined diet over 13 mo via systematic fecal analysis, supplemented by direct observation and feeding trace evidence. I identified important foods and examined their role as seasonal fallbacks. Diet composition and breadth were overall species typical. Chimpanzees were highly frugivorous and the fruit component of fecal samples exceeded that of nonfruit fiber in all months. Forest fruit availability fluctuated seasonally, including a 3-mo low fruiting season, when overall fruit intake declined. During this time chimpanzees pursued a mixed strategy of increasing fiber consumption and feeding more heavily on energy-rich cultivars, including those obtained through crop raiding. The data suggest that exploiting agricultural fruits helped chimpanzees maintain a fruit-dominated diet when forest fruit was scarce. No evidence suggested this disturbed forest–farm mosaic is a food-impoverished habitat for chimpanzees overall. Nevertheless, cultivar feeding creates conflict with people and the high nutritional quality of crops is likely offset by the inherent risk associated with obtaining them. This study adds to growing evidence of ecological and behavioral adaptability of Pan troglodytes in response to anthropogenic habitat alteration. Targeted conservation of key natural foods for wildlife —particularly fallbacks— would help reduce conflicts and improve the survival prospects of threatened species sharing environments with people.     

Nutritional Characteristics of Wild and Cultivated Foods for Chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes</Emphasis>) in Agricultural Landscapes

Primate habitats are being transformed by human activities such as agriculture. Many wild primates include cultivated foods (crops) in their diets, calling for an improved understanding of the costs and benefits of crop feeding. We measured the macronutrient and antifeedant content of 44 wild and 21 crop foods eaten by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in a mosaic habitat at Bulindi, Uganda, to evaluate the common assertion that crops offer high nutritional returns compared to wild forage for primates. In addition, we analyzed 13 crops not eaten at Bulindi but that are consumed by chimpanzees elsewhere to assess whether nutritional aspects explain why chimpanzees in Bulindi ignored them. Our analysis of their wild plant diet (fruit, leaves, and pith) corresponds with previous chemical analyses of primate plant foods. Compared to wild food equivalents, crops eaten by the chimpanzees contained higher levels of digestible carbohydrates (mainly sugars) coupled with lower amounts of insoluble fiber and antifeedants. Cultivated fruits were relatively nutritious throughout the ripening process. Our data support the assumption that eating cultivated foods confers energetic advantages for primates, although crops in our sample were low in protein and lipids compared to some wild foods. We found little evidence that crops ignored by the chimpanzees were less nutritious than those that they did eat. Nonnutritional factors, e.g., similarity to wild foods, probably also influence crop selection. Whether cultivated habitats can support threatened but flexible primates such as chimpanzees in the long term hinges on local people’s willingness to share their landscape and resources with them.     

Mitigating crop raiding by forest elephants and baboons at Kibale National Park

In Africa, most protected forests are in densely human-dominated landscapes where human–wildlife conflict is intense. We documented farmer perceptions and responses to crop-raiding wildlife from Kibale National Park, Uganda. Crop raiding was mostly (95%) by baboons (Papio anubis) and elephants (Loxodonta africana). While the financial loss caused by baboons and elephants did not differ, elephants were perceived as more damaging. Guarding and trenches were perceived as the most effective deterrent strategies for baboons and elephants, respectively. Distance from the park boundary and household income were significantly associated with a greater likelihood of crop raiding. Distance from the park, household head age and the species that raided crops, influenced whether a household applied one or more deterrent strategies. Households headed by women or older adults were most vulnerable, experiencing greater losses to raiding. Patterns of human–wildlife conflict around Kibale forest are complex, but the extent of crop damage was mostly determined by distance from the park and farm socio-economic status and thus their ability to mitigate or deter raiding. Managing crop raiding requires collaboration between the park and affected farmers to ensure that mutually managed deterrent methods, such as trenching (elephants) and guarding (baboons), are effectively shared, applied and maintained.     

Crop protection and conflict mitigation: reducing the costs of living alongside non-human primates

Conflict between farmers and primates increasingly impacts conservation efforts in Africa and Asia. Field crops provide a reliable and readily-accessible source of food for primates coping with habitat loss. However, crop-raiding undermines food security and tolerance of wildlife within neighbouring human communities. Many primates consume crops regularly yet there are few accounts of systematic evaluation of techniques to deter them. Working in partnership with farmers, this study was conducted over two growing seasons within four villages adjacent to the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Using systematic observational sampling, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups, we (i) monitored primate crop-raiding behaviour prior to and after installing locally-appropriate deterrents, developed with local farmers, and (ii) explored farmers’ initial responses to the methods trialled. Deterrent efficacy was assessed by comparing the frequency and characteristics of raiding events across seasons. Primates were the predominant diurnal crop-raiders; six species were observed raiding. Deterrents implemented included barriers, alarms, repellents, and systematic guarding. Incidence of raiding and crop loss decreased in almost all cases, often by shifting raiding to unprotected fields or adjacent farms. Farmers identified benefits and shortcomings for each deterrent, and considered most to be effective and valuable. Insights from the research directly inform intervention strategies to address crop-raiding issues and extend options to mitigate human–wildlife conflict.     

Comparing the Use of Camera Traps and Farmer Reports to Study Crop Feeding Behavior of Moor Macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca maura</Emphasis>)

Investigating crop feeding patterns by primates is an increasingly important objective for primatologists and conservation practitioners alike. Although camera trap technology is used to study primates and other wildlife in numerous ways, i.e., activity patterns, social structure, species richness, abundance, density, diet, and demography, it is comparatively underused in the study of human–primate interactions. We compare photographic (N?=?210) and video (N?=?141) data of crop feeding moor macaques (Macaca maura) from remote sensor cameras, functioning for 231 trap days, with ethnographic data generated from semistructured interviews with local farmers. Our results indicate that camera traps can provide data on the following aspects of crop feeding behavior: species, crop type and phase targeted, harvesting technique used, and daily and seasonal patterns of crop feeding activity. We found camera traps less useful, however, in providing information on the individual identification and age/sex class of crop feeders, exact group size, and amount of crops consumed by the moor macaques. While farmer reports match camera trap data regarding crop feeding species and how wildlife access the gardens, they differ when addressing crop feeding event frequency and timing. Understanding the mismatches between camera trap data and farmer reports is valuable to conservation efforts that aim to mitigate the conflict between crop feeding wildlife and human livelihoods. For example, such information can influence changes in the way certain methods are used to deter crop feeding animals from damaging crops. Ultimately, we recommend using remote-sensing camera technology in conjunction with other methods to study crop feeding behavior.     

Does traditional and advanced guarding reduce crop losses due to wildlife? A comparative analysis from Africa and Asia

Crop damage caused by herbivorous wildlife species on farms located within conservation landscapes, is a driver of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Guarding of farms, whereby farmers spend the night out in the fields, in areas adjacent to protected areas is, therefore, very common in many African and Asian countries. Furthermore, guarding is often combined with other crop protection measures, but little is known about the efficacy of these measures.We examined the effect that different traditional and advanced crop protection measures (active and passive guarding strategies, barriers and combinations of measures) had on the magnitude of damaged crops. For this, we examined the cost of crop damage caused by a total of 20 wildlife species in two African and two Asian study areas, where different protection types were applied. Data was compared with the cost of crop damage on unprotected fields. We continuously used a standardised HWC assessment scheme over six years (2009–2014), based on site observations and measurements in addition to interviews with victims.The analysis of crop damage costs revealed substantial losses, especially from that caused by elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) and other large herbivores, such as zebra (Equus quagga) and common eland (Taurotragus oryx). Once wildlife had entered the farms, it was found that crop protection measures by farmers were only able to reduce damage costs when applied as a communal, strategic guarding system. Surprisingly, all other traditional crop protection strategies have proven ineffective in reducing crop damage costs. Electrical fences actually increased the risk of crop damage when combined with guarding and the chasing of wildlife strategies. Therefore, we recommend reviewing the practice of traditional guarding strategies and the effectiveness of fences. Furthermore, we emphasise the need for objective evaluation of HWC mitigation strategies in the long-term.     

Forest fragments become farmland: Dietary Response of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to fast-changing anthropogenic landscapes

Behavioral flexibility, including an ability to modify feeding behavior, is a key trait enabling primates to survive in forest fragments. In human-dominated landscapes, unprotected forest fragments can become progressively degraded, and may be cleared entirely, challenging the capacity of primates to adjust to the changes. We examined responses of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) to major habitat change: that is, clearance of forest fragments for agriculture. Over 7 years, fragments in Bulindi, Uganda, were reduced in size by 80%. We compared the chimpanzees’ diet at the start and end of this period of rapid deforestation, using data derived mainly from fecal analysis. Similar to other long-term study populations, chimpanzees in Bulindi have a diverse diet comprising over 169 plant foods. However, extensive deforestation seemed to impact their feeding ecology. Dietary changes after fragment clearance included reduced overall frugivory, reduced intake of figs (Ficus spp.; formerly a dietary “staple” for these chimpanzees), and reduced variety of fruits in fecal samples. Nevertheless, the magnitude of most changes was remarkably minor given the extent of forest loss. Agricultural fruits increased in dietary importance, with crops accounting for a greater proportion of fruits in fecal samples after deforestation. In particular, cultivated jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) became a “staple” food for the chimpanzees but was scarcely eaten before fragment clearance. Crops offer some nutritional benefits for primates, being high in carbohydrate energy and low in hard-to-digest fiber. Thus, crop feeding may have offset foraging costs associated with loss of wild foods and reduced overall frugivory for the chimpanzees. The adaptability of many primates offers hope for their conservation in fragmented, rural landscapes. However, long-term data are needed to establish whether potential benefits (i.e. energetic, reproductive) of foraging in agricultural matrix habitats outweigh fitness costs from anthropogenic mortality risk for chimpanzees and other adaptable primates.     

People and wildlife: Conflicts arising around the Bia Conservation Area in Ghana

Human–wildlife conflicts have drastically increased around conservation areas in Africa over the last decades. Underlying causes are similar across regions and can most often be attributed to land-use changes and increasing human populations. However, wildlife species composition involved in conflicts can vary tremendously across sites. Conflict assessment often focuses on prominent species such as elephants or other large mammals, and information on smaller wildlife species involved in conflicts is often lacking. We conducted 100 interviews in 10 communities around the Bia Conservation Area (BCA), Ghana, to address the type and extent of damage as well as possible factors influencing the risk of crop-raids. We assessed wildlife presence and relative densities through indirect observations on transects and spoor-plots in the transition zone between BCA and agricultural land. Crop-raiding was present across all communities interviewed but was more than twice as high in the north compared to the south. Squirrels (Sciuridae spp.) were the most frequent crop-raiding species (92% of farmers experienced damage), but elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis [Matschie, 1900]) were nevertheless the major conflict generating species (84% of farmers experienced damage). Squirrel signs were 75 times as frequent as any other species recorded in the farmland. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) was most frequently raided (99%), followed by cassava (Manihot esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea spp.). Raiding might have been promoted through inappropriate agricultural practices while only few current mitigation strategies have been successful so far. Promising strategies include chili fences and buffer zones, in which less susceptible crops such as chili pepper are planted. Further education of farmers on mitigation measures is needed, including training on improved farming practices.     

Mortality Patterns of Asian Elephants in a Region of Human–Elephant Conflict

Many wildlife species suffer from human–wildlife conflict, especially crop-raiding. Long-term analyses of mortality patterns are needed to assess the efficacy of management strategies that address this issue. We report mortality patterns from necropsies of 498 Asian elephants from 2009–2018 in an area of northwestern Sri Lanka. Deaths were lowest in July and highest in October, a period of peak crop availability. Most (about 70%) deaths were human-related, and males were killed in these incidents more frequently than females. As gunshot deaths decreased, other forms of human-related deaths increased. Additionally, causes of death differed between districts, with more intentional human-related mortality observed in the district with the highest percent of protected land. These results highlight the importance of understanding the long-term spatial and temporal variation in wildlife mortality to effectively address human–wildlife conflict. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Seasonality,crop type and crop phenology influence crop damage by wildlife herbivores in Africa and Asia

Wildlife species damaging crops can cause substantial losses to farmers and at the same time create negative attitudes against wildlife and conservation efforts that may result in negative interactions against wildlife and lead to human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). For the analysis of negative interactions between humans and terrestrial wildlife species, a globally applicable scheme for monitoring was developed and applied over 6 years in study areas of two Asian (Nepal and India) and two African (Zambia and Tanzania) countries. Factors influencing crop consumption by eight different groups of herbivores were monitored and analyzed using generalized linear models. Seasonality, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop seem to play an important role in the crop damaging behavior of herbivores. Crop consumers such as elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus), zebra (Equus quagga spp.) and boars/hogs (Sus scrofa, Potamocherus larvatus and Phacochoerus africanus) show preferences for harvested and/or maturing crops. Rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis) and antelopes/deer (Taurotragus oryx, Aepyceros melampus, Boselaphus tragocamelus and Axis axis) damage the highest numbers of fields with crops at an intermediate growth stage. The findings of this study can inform management of HWCs in areas where people and wildlife coexist. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the benefits of standardized HWC assessments in order to compare data from different continents and between different species to be able to draw generalized conclusions for the management of HWC.     

贵州赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区野猪危害特征与居民态度分析

野猪对农作物的危害是当前人与野生动物冲突的典型案例,分析其危害特征,掌握当地居民对野猪危害与保护管理的态度,对于自然保护区社区共管与野生动物保护管理决策尤为重要。对贵州赤水桫椤国家级自然保护区的调查研究发现,野猪一年四季均危害农作物,危害高峰期在 2-4 月与10-12 月,主要受作物收获期影响;农耕地在保护区的位置、距道路距离及距水源距离显著影响野猪对农耕地的危害,农耕地距道路(< 55 m)和水源越近(< 270 m),遭受危害程度越高。保护区的实验区和周边区域人居活动强烈,但野猪危害较其他区域严重,野猪危害农地时对水源因素较距居民点距离、距林缘距离、隐蔽因素更为敏感。70% 的当地居民认为野猪危害是由于种群数量过多引起。55% 的当地居民不赞同国家保护野猪的政策,62% 的赞同猎杀野猪控制其种群数量增长。受访者年龄与野猪危害程度两因素显著影响居民对野猪的容忍度,50 - 70 岁是当地社区居民的主要人群,也是态度中立及容忍度较高的人群。为有效减少野猪危害损失,调和人与野生动物冲突矛盾,建议保护区管理者根据野猪危害特征,帮助当地居民建立有效防控措施和有效快速的危害评估与损失补偿机制,同时根据当地居民的态度特征,做好保护政策的宣教工作。     

Patterns of frugivory of the Budongo Forest chimpanzees, Uganda

Frugivory patterns of the chimpanzees in the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda were studied between June 2000 and August 2001. Chimpanzee feeding habitats, movement, group size and food eaten were assessed using focal and scan sampling. It was found that fruits were scarce during the dry season, when chimpanzees appeared and moved in large groups over long distances and raided farms at the forest edge. Chimpanzee movement out of the forest to forage was influenced by seasonal fluctuations in availability of preferred foods as some cultivated crops are perennial. Presence of chimpanzees in a specific feeding habitat was related to the availability of edible fruits both within and between months, suggesting that the presence of food may influence chimpanzee movement patterns. Therefore, a good understanding of patterns of frugivory is essential for making informed decisions about conservation of chimpanzees and other frugivores like birds and monkeys in Budongo as different forest habitats are under varying human pressure because of logging and other forms of utilization.     

Primate Crop Feeding Behavior,Crop Protection,and Conservation

Many species across a range of primate genera, irrespective of dietary and locomotory specializations, can and will incorporate agricultural crops in their diets. However, although there is little doubt that rapid, extensive conversion of natural habitats to agricultural areas is significantly impacting primate populations, primate crop foraging behaviors cannot be understood solely in terms of animals shifting to cultivated crops to compensate for reduced wild food availability. To understand fully why, how, and when primates might incorporate crops in their dietary repertoire, we need to examine primate crop foraging behavior in the context of their feeding strategies and nutritional ecology. Here I briefly outline current debates about the use of terms such as human–wildlife conflict and crop raiding and why they are misleading, summarize current knowledge about primate crop foraging behavior, and highlight some key areas for future research to support human–primate coexistence in an increasingly anthropogenic world.     

Endemic wild potato (Solanum spp.) biodiversity status in Bolivia: Reasons for conservation concerns

Crop wild relatives possess important traits, therefore ex situ and in situ conservation efforts are essential to maintain sufficient options for crop improvement. Bolivia is a centre of wild relative diversity for several crops, among them potato, which is an important staple worldwide and the principal food crop in this country. Despite their relevance for plant breeding, limited knowledge exists about their in situ conservation status. We used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and distribution modelling with the software Maxent to better understand geographic patterns of endemic wild potato diversity in Bolivia. In combination with threat layers, we assessed the conservation status of all endemic species, 21 in total. We prioritised areas for in situ conservation by using complementary reserve selection and excluded 25% of the most-threatened collection sites because costs to implement conservation measures at those locations may be too high compared to other areas. Some 70% (15 of 21 species) has a preliminary vulnerable status or worse according to IUCN red list distribution criteria. Our results show that four of these species would require special conservation attention because they were only observed in <15 locations and are highly threatened by human accessibility, fires and livestock pressure. Although highest species richness occurs in south-central Bolivia, in the departments Santa Cruz and Chuquisaca, the first priority area for in situ conservation according to our reserve selection exercise is central Bolivia, Cochabamba; this area is less threatened than the potato wild relatives’ hotspot in south-central Bolivia. Only seven of the 21 species were observed in protected areas. To improve coverage of potato wild relatives’ distribution by protected areas, we recommend starting inventories in parks and reserves with high modelled diversity. Finally, to improve ex situ conservation, we targeted areas for germplasm collection of species with <5 accessions conserved in genebanks.     

Buton macaques (Macaca ochreata brunnescens): crops, conflict, and behavior on farms

One consequence of anthropogenic habitat alteration is that many nonhuman primates are forced into conflict interactions with humans and their livelihood activities, especially through crop raiding. These problems are particularly acute for the endemic and threatened Buton Island macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens), in southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Our study investigated the crop raiding behavior of this species over time. Foods eaten and the behavioral repertoire exhibited by macaques during crop raiding at and inside farm perimeters were observed over a period of 8 years (2002–2009). Storage organ crops (e.g. sweet potato) were abundant and most frequently raided by macaques. Individual macaques were most commonly observed to raid close (0–10 m) to farm perimeters. Activities such as feeding, resting, moving, and social interaction varied significantly as a function of penetration distance into the farm, but only marginally between age‐sex classes. The annual average raid frequency per farm decreased over the latter years of the study period, raising questions about changes in macaque foraging and ranging behavior over time and their response to farm management and mitigation strategies. Am. J. Primatol. 74:29–36, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Understanding sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii) habitats through diet analysis in Rushebeya‐Kanyabaha wetland,Uganda

Between January and December 2008, we assessed the diet and habitat selection of sitatunga, a highly endangered tropical wetland antelope threatened by habitat loss in Rushebeya‐Kanyabaha wetland. Microhistological faecal analysis and vegetative sampling methods were used to assess plant forms, species and seasonal changes in the sitatunga diet. Habitat use was indirectly determined by assessing feeding patterns, distribution of dung and trails within the wetland. Sitatunga fed mainly on herbs, sedges, grasses and shrubs. A total of 34 plant species were recorded as eaten by sitatunga. The most eaten plant species was Cyperus papyrus L. (22%). Malenthera scandens Schum. & Thonn., Polygonum senegalense Meisu (12%) and Polygonum pulchrum Blume (5%) were the most eaten herbs. Zea mays L. was the most eaten agricultural crop (58% of domestic crops), mainly during the wet season. Sitatunga feeding was mainly concentrated on the wetland edge habitat (46%) where most of its food (53%) was located. The other preferred habitat was the tall closed papyrus. We conclude that the long‐term survival of sitatunga requires a management plan focussing on the conservation of the most preferred plant species and habitats.     

Behavioral correlates of supplementary feeding of wildlife: Can general conclusions be drawn?

Supplementary feeding is a common, but controversial, tool in wildlife management, because it can benefit both humans and wildlife (e.g., increased wildlife densities), but has certain downsides (e.g., increased disease transmission). For species that are often involved in human-wildlife conflicts, two opposing paradigms with respect to supplementary feeding exist, i.e., (i) that supplementary feeding is efficient to lure animals away from undesired places (i.e., diversionary feeding; hypothesis 1), and (ii) that supplementary feeding stimulates ‘nuisance’ behavior (i.e., increased tolerance for humans and selection for human facilities; hypothesis 2). We formulated an alternative hypothesis (hypothesis 3); i.e., that behavioral variation among individuals dilutes population-wide, general patterns with respect to supplementary feeding. Based on GPS relocation data and resource selection functions, we show that neither of the two opposing management paradigms (hypothesis 1 and 2) hold in a particularly ‘conflict rich’ species, the brown bear (Ursus arctos), because individual variation in selection behavior with respect to supplementary feeding diluted population-wide patterns (hypothesis 3), even under very different environmental contexts (Sweden vs. Slovenia; i.e., different human and bear population density, history and intensity of supplementary feeding, topography, etc.). Our results emphasize that individual variation is an important component of behavioral ecology and should be considered in wildlife management and conservation.