Requirement of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent pathway and Src for Gas6-Axl mitogenic and survival activities in NIH 3T3 fibroblasts.

Gas6 is a secreted protein previously identified as the ligand of the Axl receptor tyrosine kinase. We have shown that Gas6 is able to induce cell cycle reentry of serum-starved NIH 3T3 cells and to efficiently prevent apoptosis after complete growth factor removal, a survival effect uncoupled from Gas6-induced mitogenesis. Here we report that the mitogenic effect of Gas6 requires phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) activity since it is abrogated both by the specific inhibitor wortmannin and by overexpression of the dominant negative P13K p85 subunit. Consistently, Gas6 activates the P13K downstream targets S6K and Akt, whose activation is abrogated by addition of wortmannin. Moreover, rapamycin treatment blocks Gas6-induced entry into the S phase of serum-starved NIH 3T3 cells. We also demonstrate the requirement of Src tyrosine kinase for Gas6 signalling since stable or transient expression of a catalytically inactive form of Src significantly inhibited Gas6-stimulated entry into the S phase. Accordingly, Gas6 addition to serum-starved NIH 3T3 cells causes activation of the intrinsic Src kinase activity. When specifically analyzed in a survival assay, these elements were found to be required for the survival effect of Gas6. Taken together, the evidence presented here identifies elements involved in the Gas6 transduction pathway that are responsible for its antiapoptotic effect and suggests that Src is involved in the events regulating cell survival.     

Glucagon-like peptide-2 receptor activation engages bad and glycogen synthase kinase-3 in a protein kinase A-dependent manner and prevents apoptosis following inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

Activation of glucagon-like peptide-2 receptor (GLP-2R) signaling promotes expansion of the mucosal epithelium indirectly via activation of growth and anti-apoptotic pathways; however, the cellular mechanisms coupling direct GLP-2R activation to cell survival remain poorly understood. We now demonstrate that GLP-2, in a cycloheximide-insensitive manner, enhanced survival in baby hamster kidney cells stably transfected with the rat GLP-2R; reduced mitochondrial cytochrome c efflux; and attenuated the caspase-dependent cleavage of Akt, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, and beta-catenin following inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) by LY294002. The prosurvival effects of GLP-2 on LY294002-induced cell death were independent of Akt, p90(Rsk), or p70 S6 kinase activation; were mimicked by forskolin; and were abrogated by inhibition of protein kinase A (PKA) activity. GLP-2 inhibited activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) through phosphorylation at Ser(21) in GSK-3alpha and at Ser(9) in GSK-3beta in a PI3K-independent, PKA-dependent manner. GLP-2 reduced LY294002-induced mitochondrial association of endogenous Bad and Bax and stimulated phosphorylation of a transfected Bad fusion protein at Ser(155) in a PI3K-independent, but H89-sensitive manner, a modification known to suppress Bad pro-apoptotic activity. These results suggest that GLP-2R signaling enhances cell survival independently of PI3K/Akt by inhibiting the activity of a subset of pro-apoptotic downstream targets of Akt in a PKA-dependent manner.     

In brain, Axl recruits Grb2 and the p85 regulatory subunit of PI3 kinase; in vitro mutagenesis defines the requisite binding sites for downstream Akt activation

Axl is a receptor tyrosine kinase implicated in cell survival following growth factor withdrawal and other stressors. The binding of Axl's ligand, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6), results in Axl autophosphorylation, recruitment of signaling molecules, and activation of downstream survival pathways. Pull-down assays and immunoprecipitations using wildtype and mutant Axl transfected cells determined that Axl directly binds growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2) at pYVN and the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3 kinase) at two pYXXM sites (pY779 and pY821). Also, p85 can indirectly bind to Axl via an interaction between p85's second proline-rich region and the N-terminal SH3 domain of Grb2. Further, Grb2 and p85 can compete for binding at the pY821VNM site. Gas6-stimulation of Axl-transfected COS7 cells recruited activated PI3 kinase and phosphorylated Akt. An interaction between Axl, p85 and Grb2 was confirmed in brain homogenates, enriched populations of O4+ oligodendrocytes, and O4− flow-through prepared from day 10 mouse brain, indicating that cells with active Gas6/Axl signal through Grb2 and the PI3 kinase/Akt pathways.     

Interleukin-6 inhibits transforming growth factor-beta-induced apoptosis through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt and signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 pathways.

The multifunctional cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) regulates growth and differentiation of many cell types and induces production of acute-phase proteins in hepatocytes. Here we report that IL-6 protects hepatoma cells from apoptosis induced by transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), a well known apoptotic inducer in liver cells. Addition of IL-6 blocked TGF-beta-induced activation of caspase-3 while showing no effect on the induction of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and p15(INK4B) genes, indicating that IL-6 interferes with only a subset of TGF-beta activities. To further elucidate the mechanism of this anti-apoptotic effect of IL-6, we investigated which signaling pathway transduced by IL-6 is responsible for this effect. IL-6 stimulation of hepatoma cells induced a rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) and its kinase activity followed by the activation of Akt. Inhibition of PI 3-kinase by wortmannin or LY294002 abolished the protection of IL-6 against TGF-beta-induced apoptosis. A dominant-negative Akt also abrogated this anti-apoptotic effect. Dominant-negative inhibition of STAT3, however, only weakly attenuated the IL-6-induced protection. Finally, inhibition of both STAT3 and PI 3-kinase by treating cells overexpressing the dominant-negative STAT3 with LY294002 completely blocked IL-6-induced survival signal. Thus, concomitant activation of the PI 3-kinase/Akt and the STAT3 pathways mediates the anti-apoptotic effect of IL-6 against TGF-beta, with the former likely playing a major role in this anti-apoptosis.     

Prevention of TGF-β-induced apoptosis by interlukin-4 through Akt activation and p70S6K survival signaling pathways

In this study, we demonstrate that interleukin-4 (IL-4) protects human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line Hep3B from apoptosis induced by transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β). Further investigation of IL-4-transduced signaling pathways revealed that both insulin response substrate 1 and 2 (IRS-1/-2) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways were activated after IL-4 stimulation. The IRS-1/-2 activation was accompanied by the activation of phosphotidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), leading to Akt and p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K). Interestingly, a protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, Gö6976, inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt, suggesting that the Akt activation was PKC-dependent. Using specific inhibitors for PI3K or ERK, we demonstrated that the PI3K pathway, but not the ERK pathway, was required for protection. The constitutively active form of PI3K almost completely rescued TGF-β-induced apoptosis, further supporting the importance of the PI3K pathway in the protective effect of IL-4. Furthermore, a dominant negative Akt and/or Gö6976 only partially blocked the anti-apoptotic effect of IL-4. Similarly, rapamycin, which interrupted the activation of p70S6K, also only partially blocked the protective effect of IL-4. However, in the presence of both rapamycin and dominant negative Akt with or without Gö6976, IL-4 almost completely lost the anti-apoptotic effect, suggesting that both Akt and p70S6K pathways were required for the protective effect of IL-4 against TGF-β-induced apoptosis.     

Cell type-specific expression of the IkappaB kinases determines the significance of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling to NF-kappa B activation

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase/Akt signaling activates NF-kappa B through pleiotropic, cell type-specific mechanisms. This study investigated the significance of PI 3-kinase/Akt signaling to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced NF-kappa B activation in transformed, immortalized, and primary cells. Pharmacological inhibition of PI 3-kinase blocked TNF-induced NF-kappa B DNA binding in the 293 line of embryonic kidney cells, partially affected binding in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, HeLa and ME-180 cervical carcinoma cells, and NIH 3T3 cells but was without significant effect in H1299 and human umbilical vein endothelial cells, cell types in which TNF activated Akt. NF-kappa B is retained in the cytoplasm by inhibitory proteins, I kappa Bs, which are phosphorylated and targeted for degradation by I kappa B kinases (IKK alpha and IKK beta). Expression and the ratios of IKK alpha and IKK beta, which homo- and heterodimerize, varied among cell types. Cells with a high proportion of IKK alpha (the IKK kinase activated by Akt) to IKK beta were most sensitive to PI 3-kinase inhibitors. Consequently, transient expression of IKK beta diminished the capacity of the inhibitors to block NF-kappa B DNA binding in 293 cells. Also, inhibitors of PI 3-kinase blocked NF-kappa B DNA binding in Ikk beta-/- but not Ikk alpha-/- or wild-type cells in which the ratio of IKK alpha to IKK beta is low. Thus, noncoordinate expression of I kappa B kinases plays a role in determining the cell type-specific role of Akt in NF-kappa B activation.     

Copper ions strongly activate the phosphoinositide-3-kinase/Akt pathway independent of the generation of reactive oxygen species.

Copper is implicated in metabolic disorders, such as Wilson's disease or Alzheimer's disease. Analysis of signaling pathways regulating cellular survival and function in response to a copper stress is crucial for understanding the pathogenesis of such diseases. Exposure of human skin fibroblasts or HeLa cells to Cu(2+) resulted in a dose- and time-dependent activation of the antiapoptotic kinase Akt/protein kinase B, starting at concentrations as low as 3 microM. Only Cu(II), but not Cu(I), had this effect. Activation of Akt was accompanied by phosphorylation of a downstream target of Akt, glycogen synthase kinase-3. Inhibitors of phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) completely blocked activation of Akt by Cu(2+), indicating a requirement of PI3K for Cu(2+)-induced activation of Akt. Indeed, cellular PI3K activity was strongly enhanced after exposure to Cu(2+). Copper ions may lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species, such as hydrogen peroxide. Activation of Akt by hydrogen peroxide or growth factors is known to proceed via the activation growth factor receptors. In line with this, pretreatment with inhibitors of growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases blocked activation of Akt by hydrogen peroxide and growth factors, as did a src-family tyrosine kinase inhibitor or the broad-spectrum tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein. Activation of Akt by Cu(2+), however, remained unimpaired, implying (i) that tyrosine kinase activation is not involved in Cu(2+) activation of Akt and (ii) that activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway by Cu(2+) is initiated independently of that induced by reactive oxygen species. Comparison of the time course of the oxidation of 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein in copper-treated cells with that of Akt activation led to the conclusion that production of hydroperoxides cannot be an upstream event in copper-induced Akt activation. Rather, both activation of Akt and generation of ROS are proposed to occur in parallel, regulating cell survival after a copper stress.     

Modulation of curcumin-induced Akt phosphorylation and apoptosis by PI3K inhibitor in MCF-7 cells

Curcumin has been shown to induce apoptosis in various malignant cancer cell lines. One mechanism of curcumin-induced apoptosis is through the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Akt, also known as protein kinase B (PKB), is a member of the family of phosphatidylinositol 3-OH-kinase regulated Ser/Thr kinases. The active Akt regulates cell survival and proliferation; and inhibits apoptosis. In this study we found that curcumin induces apoptotic cell death in MCF-7 cells, as assessed by MTT assay, DNA ladder formation, PARP cleavage, p53 and Bax induction. At apoptotic inducing concentration, curcumin induces a dramatic Akt phosphorylation, accompanied by an increased phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), which has been considered to be a pro-growth signaling molecule. Combining curcumin with PI3K inhibitor, LY290042, synergizes the apoptotic effect of curcumin. The inhibitor LY290042 was capable of attenuating curcumin-induced Akt phosphorylation and activation of GSK3β. All together, our data suggest that blocking the PI3K/Akt survival pathway sensitizes the curcumin-induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells.     

IGF-I elicits growth of human intestinal smooth muscle cells by activation of PI3K,PDK-1, and p70S6 kinase

Endogenous IGF-I regulates growth of human intestinal smooth muscle cells by jointly activating phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and ERK1/2. The 70-kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (p70S6 kinase) is a key regulator of cell growth activated by several independently regulated kinases. The present study characterized the role of p70S6 kinase in IGF-I-induced growth of human intestinal smooth muscle cells and identified the mechanisms of p70S6 kinase activation. IGF-I-induced growth elicited via either the PI3K or ERK1/2 pathway required activation of p70S6 kinase. IGF-I elicited concentration-dependent activation of PI3K, 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK-1), and p70S6 kinase that was sequential and followed similar time courses. IGF-I caused time-dependent and concentration-dependent phosphorylation of p70S6 kinase on Thr(421)/Ser(424), Thr(389), and Thr(229) that paralleled p70S6 kinase activation. p70S6 kinase(Thr(421)/Ser(424)) phosphorylation was PI3K dependent and PDK-1 independent, whereas p70S6 kinase(Thr(389)) and p70S6 kinase(Thr(229)) phosphorylation and p70S6 kinase activation were PI3K dependent and PDK-1 dependent. IGF-I elicited sequential Akt(Ser(308)), Akt(Ser(473)), and mammalian target of rapamycin(Ser(2448)) phosphorylation; however, transfection of muscle cells with kinase-inactive Akt1(K179M) showed that these events were not required for IGF-I to activate p70S6 kinase and stimulate proliferation of human intestinal muscle cells.     

PS1 activates PI3K thus inhibiting GSK-3 activity and tau overphosphorylation: effects of FAD mutations

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) promotes cell survival and communication by activating its downstream effector Akt kinase. Here we show that PS1, a protein involved in familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD), promotes cell survival by activating the PI3K/Akt cell survival signaling. This function of PS1 is unaffected by gamma-secretase inhibitors. Pharmacological and genetic evidence indicates that PS1 acts upstream of Akt, at or before PI3K kinase. PS1 forms complexes with the p85 subunit of PI3K and promotes cadherin/PI3K association. Furthermore, conditions that inhibit this association prevent the PS1-induced PI3K/Akt activation, indicating that PS1 stimulates PI3K/Akt signaling by promoting cadherin/PI3K association. By activating PI3K/Akt signaling, PS1 promotes phosphorylation/inactivation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3), suppresses GSK-3-dependent phosphorylation of tau at residues overphosphorylated in AD and prevents apoptosis of confluent cells. PS1 FAD mutations inhibit the PS1-dependent PI3K/Akt activation, thus promoting GSK-3 activity and tau overphosphorylation at AD-related residues. Our data raise the possibility that PS1 may prevent development of AD pathology by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. In contrast, FAD mutations may promote AD pathology by inhibiting this pathway.     

Dose-dependent activation of antiapoptotic and proapoptotic pathways by ethanol treatment in human vascular endothelial cells: differential involvement of adenosine

Moderate but not heavy drinking has been found to have a protective effect against cardiovascular morbidity. We investigated the effects of ethanol (EtOH) treatment on the cell survival-promoting phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Exposure of cells to 2-20 mm EtOH resulted in rapid (<10 min) induction of Akt phosphorylation that could be prevented by pertussis toxin or the PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002. Among the downstream effectors of PI3K/Akt, p70S6 kinase, glycogen synthase kinase 3alpha/beta, and IkappaB-alpha were phosphorylated, the latter resulting in 3-fold activation of NF-kappaB. EtOH also activated p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase in a PI3K-dependent manner. Low concentrations of EtOH increased endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activity, which could be blocked by transfection of HUVEC with dominant-negative Akt, implicating the PI3K/Akt pathway in this effect. The adenosine A1 receptor antagonist 1,3-dipopylcyclopentylxanthine prevented the phosphorylation of Akt observed in the presence of EtOH, adenosine, or the A1 agonist N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine. Incubation of HUVEC with 50-100 mm EtOH resulted in mitochondrial permeability transition and caspase-3 activation followed by apoptosis, as documented by DNA fragmentation and TUNEL assays. EtOH-induced apoptosis was unaffected by DPCPX and was potentiated by wortmannin or LY294002. We conclude that treatment with low concentrations of EtOH activates the cell survival promoting PI3K/Akt pathway in endothelial cells by an adenosine receptor-dependent mechanism and activation of the proapoptotic caspase pathway by higher concentrations of EtOH via an adenosine-independent mechanism can mask or counteract such effects.     

TRAF6-mediated regulation of the PI3 kinase (PI3K)-Akt-GSK3beta cascade is required for TNF-induced cell survival

We recently demonstrated that the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) helps maintenance of cell survival by regulating glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) activity during TNF signaling. However, the molecular linkage between TRAF6 and GSK3β signaling is unknown. Herein, we showed that TRAF6 positively regulated cell survival by modulating PI3K-Akt-GSK3β cascades. In 3T3 cells lacking TRAF6, but not those lacking TRAF2, TNF stimulation led to prolonged hyperphosphorylation of Akt, which coincided with the activation of upstream PI3K. Pharmacologically blocking PI3K significantly inhibited Akt and GSK3β phosphorylation. Importantly, PI3K inhibition rescued cell death in TRAF6-null 3T3 cells. These data suggested TRAF6 regulates TNF-mediated cell survival through PI3K-Akt-GSK3β cascades.     

The PI3 kinase-Akt pathway mediates Wnt3a-induced proliferation

Wnt3a activates proliferation of fibroblasts cells via activation of both extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathways. In this study, we show that the phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinases (PI3K)-Akt pathway is also involved in the Wnt3a-induced proliferation. Akt was activated within 30 min by Wnt3a in NIH3T3 cells. By Wnt3a treatment, activated Akt was transiently accumulated in nucleus although beta-catenin was accumulated in the nucleus of cells in a prolonged manner. The Wnt3a-induced Akt activation was not affected by siRNA-mediated reduction of beta-catenin, indicating that Wnt3a-induced Akt activation may occur independently of beta-catenin. The Wnt3a-induced Akt activation was abolished by pre-treatment with PI3K inhibitor, LY294002 and Wortmanin, but not by MEK inhibitor, U0126, indicating that Wnt3a activates Akt via PI3K. The growth and proliferation induced by Wnt3a were blocked by treatments of the PI3K inhibitors. Furthermore, Wnt3a-induced proliferation was blocked by Akt siRNA. These results reveal that the PI3K-Akt pathway mediates the Wnt3a-induced growth and proliferation of NIH3T3 cells.     

A novel role for phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase beta in signaling from G protein-coupled receptors to Akt

The protein kinase Akt plays a central role in a number of key biological functions including protein synthesis, glucose homeostasis, and the regulation of cell survival or death. The mechanism by which tyrosine kinase growth factor receptors stimulate Akt has been recently defined. In contrast, the mechanism of activation of Akt by other cell surface receptors is much less understood. For G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), conflicting data suggest that these receptors stimulate Akt in a cell type-specific manner by a yet to be fully elucidated mechanism. Here, we took advantage of the availability of cells, where Akt activity could not be enhanced by agonists acting on this large family of cell surface receptors, such as NIH 3T3 cells, to investigate the pathway linking GPCRs to Akt. We present evidence that expression of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) beta is necessary and sufficient to transmit signals from G proteins to Akt in these murine fibroblasts and that the activation of PI3Kbeta may represent the most likely mechanism whereby GPCRs stimulate Akt, as the vast majority of cells do not express PI3Kgamma, a known G protein-sensitive PI3K isoform. Furthermore, available evidence indicates that GPCRs activate Akt by a pathway distinct from that utilized by growth factor receptors, as it involves the tyrosine phosphorylation-independent activation of PI3Kbeta by G protein betagamma dimers.