Regulation of calnexin sub-cellular localization modulates endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the cellular compartment where proteins enter the secretory pathway, undergo post-translational modifications and acquire a correct conformation. If these functions are chronically altered, specific ER stress signals are triggered to promote cell death through the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. Here, we show that tunicamycin causes significant alteration of calnexin sub-cellular distribution in MCF-7 cells. Interestingly, this correlates with the absence of both tunicamycin-induced calnexin phosphorylation as well as tunicamycin-induced cell death. Under these conditions, calnexin-associated Bap31, an ER integral membrane protein, is subjected to a caspase-8 cleavage pattern within a specific sub-compartment of the ER. These results suggest that MCF-7 resistance to ER stress-induced apoptosis is partially mediated by the expression level of calnexin which in turn controls its sub-cellular localization, and its association with Bap31. These data may delineate a resistance mechanism to the ER stress-induced intrinsic apoptotic pathway.     

Calnexin deficiency and endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis

In this study, we used calnexin-deficient cells to investigate the role of this protein in ER stress-induced apoptosis. We found that calnexin-deficient cells are relatively resistant to ER stress-induced apoptosis. However, caspase 3 and 8 cleavage and cytochrome c release were unchanged in these cells, indicating that ER to mitochondria "communication" during apoptotic stimulation is not affected in the absence of calnexin. The Bcl-2:Bax ratio was also not significantly changed in calnexin-deficient cells regardless of whether the ER stress was induced with thapsigargin or not. Ca(2+) homeostasis and ER morphology were unaffected by the lack of calnexin, but ER stress-induced Bap31 cleavage was significantly inhibited. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that Bap31 forms complexes with calnexin, which may play a role in apoptosis. The results suggest that calnexin may not play a role in the initiation of the ER stress but that the protein has an effect on later apoptotic events via its influence on Bap31 function.     

Caspase 12 in calnexin-deficient cells

We investigated a role for calnexin, caspase 12, and Bap31 in endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis in calnexin-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts and a calnexin-deficient human T cell line (NKR). We showed that calnexin-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts are relatively resistant to endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis. Western blot analysis demonstrated that both wild-type and calnexin-deficient cells contained a caspase 12 protein. Caspase 12 expression was slightly inhibited in calnexin-deficient cells, and the protein carried out specific cleavage in the presence of thapsigargin. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that in the endoplasmic reticulum, caspase 12 forms complexes with Bap31 and calnexin. Treatment of wild-type cells with thapsigargin induced apoptosis and cleavage of Bap31. However, in the absence of calnexin, there was no significant cleavage of Bap31. There was also a negligible processing of caspase 8 in these cells. This work indicates that calnexin may play a role in modulating the sensitivity of a cell to apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress, in conjunction with caspase 12 and Bap31.     

Fis1 and Bap31 bridge the mitochondria-ER interface to establish a platform for apoptosis induction

The mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are two organelles that critically contribute to apoptosis induction. While it is established that they communicate, how cell death signals are transmitted from the mitochondria to the ER is unknown. Here, we show that the mitochondrial fission protein Fission 1 homologue (Fis1) conveys an apoptosis signal from the mitochondria to the ER by interacting with Bap31 at the ER and facilitating its cleavage into the pro-apoptotic p20Bap31. Exogenous apoptosis inducers likewise use this signalling route and induce the procession of Bap31. Moreover, we show that the recruitment of procaspase-8 to the Fis1-Bap31 platform is an early event during apoptosis induction. The association of procaspase-8 with the Fis1-Bap31 complex is dependent on the variant of death effector domain (vDED) in Bap31 and is required for the activation of procaspase-8. This signalling pathway establishes a feedback loop by releasing Ca(2+) from the ER that activates the mitochondria for apoptosis. Hence, the Fis1-Bap31 complex (ARCosome) that spans the mitochondria-ER interface serves as a platform to activate the initiator procaspase-8, and thereby bridges two critical organelles for apoptosis signalling.     

Cleavage of calnexin caused by apoptotic stimuli: implication for the regulation of apoptosis

Calnexin is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident molecular chaperone that plays an essential role in the correct folding of membrane proteins. We found that calnexin is subjected to partial cleavage in apoptotic mouse cells. Both ER stress-inducing and ER stress-non-inducing apoptotic stimuli caused the cleavage of calnexin, indicating that this event does not always occur downstream of ER stress. The inhibition of caspases that target the amino acid sequence DXXD abrogated calnexin cleavage in apoptotic stimulus-treated cells. In addition, disruption of one of two DXXD sequences located in the cytoplasmic domain caused calnexin to escape cleavage during apoptosis. Furthermore, calnexin was cleaved in vitro by recombinant caspase-3 or caspase-7. Finally, the overexpression of a presumed cleavage product of calnexin partly inhibited apoptosis. These results collectively suggest that caspase-3 or caspase-7 cleaves calnexin, whose cleaved product leads to the attenuation of apoptosis.     

Calnexin is involved in apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress in the fission yeast

Stress conditions affecting the functions of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) cause the accumulation of unfolded proteins. ER stress is counteracted by the unfolded-protein response (UPR). However, under prolonged stress the UPR initiates a proapoptotic response. Mounting evidence indicate that the ER chaperone calnexin is involved in apoptosis caused by ER stress. Here, we report that overexpression of calnexin in Schizosaccharomyces pombe induces cell death with apoptosis markers. Cell death was partially dependent on the Ire1p ER-stress transducer. Apoptotic death caused by calnexin overexpression required its transmembrane domain (TM), and involved sequences on either side of the ER membrane. Apoptotic death caused by tunicamycin was dramatically reduced in a strain expressing endogenous levels of calnexin lacking its TM and cytosolic tail. This demonstrates the involvement of calnexin in apoptosis triggered by ER stress. A genetic screen identified the S. pombe homologue of the human antiapoptotic protein HMGB1 as a suppressor of apoptotic death due to calnexin overexpression. Remarkably, overexpression of human calnexin in S. pombe also provoked apoptotic death. Our results argue for the conservation of the role of calnexin in apoptosis triggered by ER stress, and validate S. pombe as a model to elucidate the mechanisms of calnexin-mediated cell death.     

Functional relationship between calreticulin, calnexin, and the endoplasmic reticulum luminal domain of calnexin

Calnexin is a membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that functions as a molecular chaperone and as a component of the ER quality control machinery. Calreticulin, a soluble analog of calnexin, is thought to possess similar functions, but these have not been directly demonstrated in vivo. Both proteins contain a lectin site that directs their association with newly synthesized glycoproteins. Although many glycoproteins bind to both calnexin and calreticulin, there are differences in the spectrum of glycoproteins that each binds. Using a Drosophila expression system and the mouse class I histocompatibility molecule as a model glycoprotein, we found that calreticulin does possess apparent chaperone and quality control functions, enhancing class I folding and subunit assembly, stabilizing subunits, and impeding export of assembly intermediates from the ER. Indeed, the functions of calnexin and calreticulin were largely interchangeable. We also determined that a soluble form of calnexin (residues 1-387) can functionally replace its membrane-bound counterpart. However, when calnexin was expressed as a soluble protein in L cells, the pattern of associated glycoproteins changed to resemble that of calreticulin. Conversely, membrane-anchored calreticulin bound to a similar set of glycoproteins as calnexin. Therefore, the different topological environments of calnexin and calreticulin are important in determining their distinct substrate specificities.     

Early postnatal death and motor disorders in mice congenitally deficient in calnexin expression

Calnexin is a ubiquitously expressed type I membrane protein which is exclusively localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In mammalian cells, calnexin functions as a chaperone molecule and plays a key role in glycoprotein folding and quality control within the ER by interacting with folding intermediates via their monoglucosylated glycans. In order to gain more insight into the physiological roles of calnexin, we have generated calnexin gene-deficient mice. Despite its profound involvement in protein folding, calnexin is not essential for mammalian-cell viability in vivo: calnexin gene knockout mice were carried to full term, although 50% died within 48 h and the majority of the remaining mice had to be sacrificed within 4 weeks, with only a very few mice surviving to 3 months. Calnexin gene-deficient mice were smaller than their littermates and showed very obvious motor disorders, associated with a dramatic loss of large myelinated nerve fibers. Thus, the critical contribution of calnexin to mammalian physiology is tissue specific.     

Palmitoylated calnexin is a key component of the ribosome-translocon complex

A third of the human genome encodes N-glycosylated proteins. These are co-translationally translocated into the lumen/membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where they fold and assemble before they are transported to their final destination. Here, we show that calnexin, a major ER chaperone involved in glycoprotein folding is palmitoylated and that this modification is mediated by the ER palmitoyltransferase DHHC6. This modification leads to the preferential localization of calnexin to the perinuclear rough ER, at the expense of ER tubules. Moreover, palmitoylation mediates the association of calnexin with the ribosome-translocon complex (RTC) leading to the formation of a supercomplex that recruits the actin cytoskeleton, leading to further stabilization of the assembly. When formation of the calnexin-RTC supercomplex was affected by DHHC6 silencing, mutation of calnexin palmitoylation sites or actin depolymerization, folding of glycoproteins was impaired. Our findings thus show that calnexin is a stable component of the RTC in a manner that is exquisitely dependent on its palmitoylation status. This association is essential for the chaperone to capture its client proteins as they emerge from the translocon, acquire their N-linked glycans and initiate folding.     

Potent lectin-independent chaperone function of calnexin under conditions prevalent within the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum

Calnexin is a membrane-bound chaperone of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that participates in the folding and quality control of newly synthesized glycoproteins. Binding to glycoproteins occurs through a lectin site with specificity for Glc1Man9GlcNAc2 oligosaccharides as well as through a polypeptide binding site that recognizes non-native protein conformations. The latter interaction is somewhat controversial because it is based on observations that calnexin can suppress the aggregation of non-glycosylated substrates at elevated temperature or at low calcium concentrations, conditions that may affect the structural integrity of calnexin. Here, we examine the ability of calnexin to interact with a non-glycosylated substrate under physiological conditions of the ER lumen. We show that the soluble ER luminal domain of calnexin can indeed suppress the aggregation of non-glycosylated firefly luciferase at 37 degrees C and at the normal resting ER calcium concentration of 0.4 mM. However, gradual reduction of calcium below the resting level was accompanied by a progressive loss of native calnexin structure as assessed by thermal stability, protease sensitivity, intrinsic fluorescence, and bis-ANS binding. These assays permitted the characterization of a single calcium binding site on calnexin with a Kd = 0.15 +/- 0.05 mM. We also show that the suppression of firefly luciferase aggregation by calnexin is strongly enhanced in the presence of millimolar concentrations of ATP and that the Kd for ATP binding to calnexin in the presence of 0.4 mM calcium is 0.7 mM. ATP did not alter the overall stability of calnexin but instead triggered the localized exposure of a hydrophobic site on the chaperone. These findings demonstrate that calnexin is a potent molecular chaperone that is capable of suppressing the aggregation of substrates through polypeptide-based interactions under conditions that exist within the ER lumen.     

Bcl2 at the endoplasmic reticulum protects against a Bax/Bak-independent paraptosis-like cell death pathway initiated via p20Bap31

Bap31 is an integral ER membrane protein which functions as an escort factor in the sorting of newly synthesized membrane proteins within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). During apoptosis signaling, Bap31 is subject to early cleavage by initiator caspase-8. The resulting p20Bap31 (p20) fragment has been shown to initiate proapoptotic ER-mitochondria Ca2+ transmission, and to exert dominant negative (DN) effects on ER protein trafficking. We now report that ectopic expression of p20 in E1A/DNp53-transformed baby mouse kidney epithelial cells initiates a non-apoptotic form of cell death with paraptosis-like morphology. This pathway was characterized by an early rise in ER Ca2+ stores and massive dilation of the ER/nuclear envelope, dependent on intact ER Ca2+ stores. Ablation of the Bax/Bak genes had no effect on these ER/nuclear envelope transformations, and delayed but did not prevent cell death. ER-restricted expression of Bcl2 in the absence of Bax/Bak, however, delayed both ER/nuclear envelope dilation and cell death. This prosurvival role of Bcl2 at the ER thus extended beyond inhibition of Bax/Bak, and correlated with its ability to lower ER Ca2+ stores. Furthermore, these results indicate that ER restricted Bcl2 is capable of antagonizing not only apoptosis, but also a non-apoptotic, Bax/Bak independent, paraptosis-like form of cell death.     

Bap29/31 influences the intracellular traffic of MHC class I molecules

In this study, we examine the role of the putative cargo receptor B cell-associated protein (Bap)29/31 in the export of MHC class I molecules out of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We show that Bap31 binds to two allotypes of mouse class I molecules, with the interaction initiated at the time of H chain association with beta(2)-microglobulin and maintained until the class I molecule has left the ER. We also show that Bap31 is part of the peptide-loading complex, although is not required for its formation. Bap31 binds not only to class I molecules, but can bind to tapasin in the absence of class I. Consistent with an important role in recruiting class I molecules to transport vesicles, we show that in the absence of Bap29/31, there is a loss of class I colocalization with mSec31 (p137), a component of mammalian coat protein complex II coats. This observation is also associated with a delay in class I traffic from ER to Golgi. Our results are consistent with the view that class I molecules are largely recruited to ER exit sites by Bap29/31, and that Bap29/31 is a cargo receptor for MHC class I molecules.     

Rab32 Modulates Apoptosis Onset and Mitochondria-associated Membrane (MAM) Properties

The mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM) has emerged as an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) signaling hub that accommodates ER chaperones, including the lectin calnexin. At the MAM, these chaperones control ER homeostasis but also play a role in the onset of ER stress-mediated apoptosis, likely through the modulation of ER calcium signaling. These opposing roles of MAM-localized chaperones suggest the existence of mechanisms that regulate the composition and the properties of ER membrane domains. Our results now show that the GTPase Rab32 localizes to the ER and mitochondria, and we identify this protein as a regulator of MAM properties. Consistent with such a role, Rab32 modulates ER calcium handling and disrupts the specific enrichment of calnexin on the MAM, while not affecting the ER distribution of protein-disulfide isomerase and mitofusin-2. Furthermore, Rab32 determines the targeting of PKA to mitochondrial and ER membranes and through its overexpression or inactivation increases the phosphorylation of Bad and of Drp1. Through a combination of its functions as a PKA-anchoring protein and a regulator of MAM properties, the activity and expression level of Rab32 determine the speed of apoptosis onset.     

BAP31 and its caspase cleavage product regulate cell surface expression of tetraspanins and integrin-mediated cell survival

BAP31, a resident integral protein of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, regulates the export of other integral membrane proteins to the downstream secretory pathway. Here we show that cell surface expression of the tetraspanins CD9 and CD81 is compromised in mouse cells from which the Bap31 gene has been deleted. CD9 and CD81 facilitate the function of multiprotein complexes at the plasma membrane, including integrins. Of note, BAP31 does not appear to influence the egress of alpha5beta1 or alpha(v)beta3 integrins to the cell surface, but in Bap31-null mouse cells, these integrins are not able to maintain cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix in the presence of reduced serum. Consequently, Bap31-null cells are sensitive to serum starvation-induced apoptosis. Reconstitution of wild-type BAP31 into these Bap31-null cells restores integrin-mediated cell attachment and cell survival after serum stress, whereas interference with the functions of CD9, alpha5beta1, or alpha(v)beta3 by antagonizing antibodies makes BAP31 cells act similar to Bap31-null cells in these respects. Finally, in human KB epithelial cells protected from apoptosis by BCL-2, the caspase-8 cleavage product, p20 BAP31, inhibits egress of tetraspanin and integrin-mediated cell attachment. Thus, p20 BAP31 can operate upstream of BCL-2 in living cells to influence cell surface properties due to its effects on protein egress from the endoplasmic reticulum.     

Essential Role of PACT-Mediated PKR Activation in Tunicamycin-Induced Apoptosis

Cellular stresses such as disruption of calcium homeostasis, inhibition of protein glycosylation, and reduction of disulfide bonds result in accumulation of misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and lead to cell death by apoptosis. Tunicamycin, which is an inhibitor of protein glycosylation, induces ER stress and apoptosis. In this study, we examined the involvement of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase (PKR) and its protein activator PACT in tunicamycin-induced apoptosis. We demonstrate for the first time that PACT is phosphorylated in response to tunicamycin and is responsible for PKR activation by direct interaction. Furthermore, PACT-induced PKR activation is essential for tunicamycin-induced apoptosis, since PACT as well as PKR null cells are markedly resistant to tunicamycin and show defective eIF2α phosphorylation and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP, also known as GADD153) induction especially at low concentrations of tunicamycin. Reconstitution of PKR and PACT expression in the null cells renders them sensitive to tunicamycin, thus demonstrating that PACT-induced PKR activation plays an essential function in induction of apoptosis.     

Crystal structure of the bb' domains of the protein disulfide isomerase ERp57

The synthesis of proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is limited by the rate of correct disulfide bond formation. This process is carried out by protein disulfide isomerases, a family of ER proteins which includes general enzymes such as PDI that recognize unfolded proteins and others that are selective for specific proteins or classes. Using small-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray crystallography, we report the structure of a selective isomerase, ERp57, and its interactions with the lectin chaperone calnexin. Using isothermal titration calorimetry and NMR spectroscopy, we show that the b' domain of ERp57 binds calnexin with micromolar affinity through a conserved patch of basic residues. Disruption of this binding site by mutagenesis abrogates folding of RNase B in an in vitro assay. The relative positions of the ERp57 catalytic sites and calnexin binding site suggest that activation by calnexin is due to substrate recruitment rather than a direct stimulation of ERp57 oxidoreductase activity.     

Changes in endoplasmic reticulum luminal environment affect cell sensitivity to apoptosis

To test the role of ER luminal environment in apoptosis, we generated HeLa cell lines inducible with respect to calreticulin and calnexin and investigated their sensitivity to drug-dependent apoptosis. Overexpression of calreticulin, an ER luminal protein, resulted in an increased sensitivity of the cells to both thapsigargin- and staurosporine-induced apoptosis. This correlated with an increased release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria. Overexpression of calnexin, an integral ER membrane protein, had no significant effect on drug-induced apoptosis. In contrast, calreticulin-deficient cells were significantly resistant to apoptosis and this resistance correlated with a decreased release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and low levels of caspase 3 activity. This work indicates that changes in the lumen of the ER amplify the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, and increase caspase activity, during drug-induced apoptosis. There may be communication between the ER and mitochondria, which may involve Ca(2+) and play an important role in conferring cell sensitivity to apoptosis. Apoptosis may depend on both the presence of external apoptosis-activating signals, and, as shown in this study, on an internal factor represented by the ER.     

Bap31 is an itinerant protein that moves between the peripheral endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and a juxtanuclear compartment related to ER-associated Degradation

Certain endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) substrates with transmembrane domains are segregated from other ER proteins and sorted into a juxtanuclear subcompartment, known as the ER quality control compartment. Bap31 is an ER protein with three transmembrane domains, and it is assumed to be a cargo receptor for ER export of some transmembrane proteins, especially those prone to ERAD. Here, we show that Bap31 is a component of the ER quality control compartment and that it moves between the peripheral ER and a juxtanuclear ER or ER-related compartment distinct from the conventional ER–Golgi intermediate compartment. The third and second transmembrane domains of Bap31 are principally responsible for the movement to and recycling from the juxtanuclear region, respectively. This cycling was blocked by depolymerization of microtubules and disruption of dynein–dynactin function. Overexpression of Sar1p and Arf1 mutants affected Bap31 cycling, suggesting that this cycling pathway is related to the conventional vesicular transport pathways.     

Sequential assistance of molecular chaperones and transient formation of covalent complexes during protein degradation from the ER

BACE457 is a recently identified pancreatic isoform of human beta-secretase. We report that this membrane glycoprotein and its soluble variant are characterized by inefficient folding in the ER, leading to proteasome-mediated ER-associated degradation (ERAD). Dissection of the degradation process revealed that upon release from calnexin, extensively oxidized BACE457 transiently entered in disulfide-bonded complexes associated with the lumenal chaperones BiP and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) before unfolding and dislocation into the cytosol for degradation. BACE457 and its lumenal variant accumulated in disulfide-bonded complexes, in the ER lumen, also when protein degradation was inhibited. The complexes were disassembled and the misfolded polypeptides were cleared from the ER upon reactivation of the degradation machinery. Our data offer new insights into the mechanism of ERAD by showing a sequential involvement of the calnexin and BiP/PDI chaperone systems. We report the unexpected transient formation of covalent complexes in the ER lumen during the ERAD process, and we show that PDI participates as an oxidoreductase and a redox-driven chaperone in the preparation of proteins for degradation from the mammalian ER.