Establishment of Asian citrus psyllid (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis>) primary cultures

The Asian citrus psyllid (AsCP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is a highly competent vector of the phloem-inhabiting bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus associated with the citrus disease huanglongbing (HLB). Commonly referred to as citrus greening disease in the USA, HLB causes reduced fruit yields, quality, and ultimately tree death and is considered the most serious citrus disease. HLB has become a major limiting factor to the production of citrus worldwide. Studies of HLB have been impeded by the fact that C. Liberibacter has not yet been cultured on artificial nutrient media. After being acquired by a psyllid, C. Liberibacter asiaticus is reported to replicate within the psyllid and is retained by the psyllid throughout its life span. We therefore hypothesized that C. Liberibacter asiaticus could be cultured in vitro using psyllid cell cultures as the medium and investigated the establishment of a pure culture for AsCP cells. Several commercially available insect cell culture media along with some media we developed were screened for viability to culture cells from AsCP embryos. Cells from psyllid tissues adhered to the plate and migration was observed within 24 h. Cells were maintained at 20°C. We successfully established primary psyllid cell cultures, referred to as DcHH-1, for D. citri Hert-Hunter-1, with a new media, Hert-Hunter-70.     

Curry leaf smells better than citrus to females of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Liviidae)

The Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) Diaphorina citri Kuwayama has a host range of about 20 species of the family Rutaceae, including Citrus spp. However, few studies have reported on its host preference. This study evaluated the host-choice behavior of ACP in curry leaf (Murraya koenigii L.), through free-choice test and bioassays with a type ‘Y’ olfactometer, and also characterized the volatiles involved in attracting the ACP. In the free-choice test, the number of adults per plant on curry leaf was higher than the number on citrus plants. When the ACP was tested in the olfactometer, the females showed preference for curry leaf over citrus plants. Sixteen volatile compounds were identified in citrus and curry leaves. Qualitative and quantitative differences in the compounds released by citrus and curry leaves were determined. The volatiles present in these hosts may play an important role in the attraction of D. citri. With this information, further studies should be done to develop new management strategies for the ACP.     

Effect of host feeding on life history traits of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tamarixia radiata</Emphasis>, parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis>

The parasitoid Tamarixia radiata (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is being used for the biological control of the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae). The parasitoid is strongly synovigenic, as it is born with very few mature eggs. Synovigenic insects need to feed on host haemolymph to mature additional eggs, and are able to resorb mature eggs to allocate resources toward maintenance. We investigated the effect of host feeding on parasitism, longevity and egg load dynamics, and estimated egg maturation and resorption rates. Although host feeding does not increase survival or longevity, it results in increased parasitization rates when parasitoids are seven days old, and that a single host meal leads to an average gain of three eggs. We discuss the importance of these data to predict the foraging and parasitization behavior of T. radiata in the field, and to potentially improve current efforts to control ACP.     

<Superscript>1</Superscript>H NMR analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Citrus macrophylla</Emphasis> subjected to Asian citrus psyllid (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> Kuwayama) feeding

The Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) is a phloem-feeding insect that can host and transmit the bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), which is the putative causative agent of the economically important citrus disease, Huanglongbing (HLB). ACP are widespread in Florida, and are spreading in California; they are the primary mode of CLas transmission in citrus groves. To understand the effects of ACP feeding, different numbers of ACP [0 ACP (control), 5 ACP (low), 15–20 ACP (medium), and 25–30 ACP (high)] were allowed to feed on Citrus macrophylla greenhouse plants. After 7 days of feeding, leaves were collected and analyzed using ¹H NMR. Metabolite concentrations from leaves of trees with ACP feeding had higher variability than control trees. Many metabolites were higher in concentration in the low ACP feeding group relative to control; however, leaves from trees with high ACP feeding had lower concentrations of many metabolites relative to control, including many amino acids such as phenylalanine, arginine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, and leucine. These results suggest ACP density-dependent changes in primary metabolism that can be measured by ¹H NMR. The implications in plant defense are discussed.     

Susceptibility of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Liviidae) and Its Parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tamarixia radiata</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) to Entomopathogenic Fungi under Laboratory Conditions

Diaphorina citri (Kuwayama) is a global pest of citrus that transmits the bacteria associated with the disease, Huanglongbing. Entomopathogenic fungi and the parasitoid Tamarixia radiata (Waterston) are important biological control agents of this pest and likely to interact in D. citri populations. As a basis for interaction studies, we determined the susceptibility of nymphs and adults of D. citri and adults of the parasitoid T. radiata to six fungal isolates from the species Beauveria bassiana s.l. (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (isolates B1 and B3), Metarhizium anisopliae s.s. (Metsch.) (Ma129 and Ma65) and Isaria fumosorosea Wize (I2 and Pae). We conducted experiments evaluating infection levels in all three insect groups following inoculation with a series of conidial concentrations (1 × 10⁴–1 × 10⁸ conidia mL^?1). Results showed that D. citri nymphs and T. radiata were more susceptible to fungal isolates than D. citri adults. Overall, B. bassiana and M. anisopliae isolates caused the greatest infection compared with I. fumosorosea isolates in all three groups of insects. Isolates B1 (B. bassiana) and Ma129 (M. anisopliae) infected a greater proportion of adults and nymphs of D. citri, respectively. Both isolates of B. bassiana caused greater infection in T. radiata compared with isolates of the other fungal species. We propose that isolates B1 and Ma129 are the strongest candidates for control of D. citri. Our results represent the first report of entomopathogenic fungi infecting T. radiata, and the basis for future studies to design a biological control programme that uses both agents more efficiently against D. citri populations.     

Detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae) in Kenya and potential implication for the spread of Huanglongbing disease in East Africa

The Asian citrus psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae) is a damaging pest of citrus globally and has recently been detected in Tanzania. Although direct damage by the pest is seldom of economic importance, the insect is more notorious for its ability to vector the fastidious phloem-limited bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), the putative causal bacterium of Huanglongbing or Asian citrus greening disease. For many years, Trioza erytreae (Del Guercio) (Hemiptera: Triozidae) was known to be the main vector of the African citrus greening disease caused by Candidatus Liberibacter africanus (CLaf), but the recent arrival of D. citri on the continent adds to the dynamics of infection and spread of both diseases on mainland Africa. Following the recent report of the presence of D. citri in Tanzania, an additional delimiting survey was carried out in the region, focusing on Kenya, mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar to detect the presence and ascertain the extent of spread of D. citri. We employed molecular tools based on the use of DNA barcoding to confirm the identity of D. citri. In addition to D. citri, the occurrence of T. erytreae in the same sampling locations is also reported. Adults and nymphs of either D. citri or T. erytreae were collected from citrus at many of the surveyed sites ranging from 19 to 668 m above sea level (masl) in Tanzania, 20–1666 masl in Kenya, and 42–48 masl in Zanzibar. Diaphorina citri was sympatric with T. erytreae at the mid to higher elevations of 1375–1666 masl and no T. erytreae or its open-gall symptoms were detected below 523 masl. Sequences obtained were queried via BLAST and all linked to D. citri of different accession numbers already available on GenBank. This is the first report of the presence of D. citri in Kenya and Zanzibar. The potential implication of the detection and spread of the two pathogens, CLaf and CLas to the citrus industry in East Africa and movement of suitable host plants is discussed.     

Proteome of the phytopathogen <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas citri</Emphasis> subsp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">citri</Emphasis>: a global expression profile

Background  

Citrus canker is a disease caused by Xantomonas citri subsp.citri (Xac), and has emerged as one of the major threats to the worldwide citrus crop because it affects all commercial citrus varieties, decreases the production and quality of the fruits and can spread rapidly in citrus growing areas. In this work, the first proteome of Xac was analyzed using two methodologies, two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D LC) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS).     

Behavioral Plasticity in Probing by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> (Hemiptera,Liviidae): Ingestion from Phloem Versus Xylem is Influenced by Leaf Age and Surface

Diaphorina citri is a major pest of citrus because it transmits Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, a phloem-limited bacterium that putatively causes Huanglongbing (HLB). The disease moves slowly through a tree, and the vector facilitates further within-tree movement via transmission of the pathogen. However, this only happens when D. citri stylets contact the phloem, to inoculate bacteria during phloem salivation and acquire bacteria during phloem sap ingestion. Behavioral changes in D. citri associated with different plant parts would affect how long it takes to reach phloem and how long the psyllids stays in phloem to ingest, thereby influencing the risk of disease spread. D. citri feeding was recorded on the abaxial and adaxial surfaces of mature and immature citrus leaves. Adults in the field can be found on these surfaces at all times of year. On abaxial surface of immature leaves, phloem salivation would occur after 11 h on average, but rarely as soon as 0.56 h. The corresponding values on mature leaves were 16 and 2.7. In general, psyllids spent more time ingesting phloem sap on immature leaves than on mature leaves. Psyllids on abaxial surfaces spent more time ingesting from phloem, though the strength of this effect was less than for immature versus mature leaves. In contrast, xylem ingestion increased on mature leaves compared with young. The biological differences that could produce this outcome are discussed. The results discussed herein are of relevance to further studies on the efficacy of an insecticide to act quickly enough to prevent pathogen transmission.     

Biological control of the citrus red mite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panonychus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">citri</Emphasis> by the predator mite <Emphasis Type="Italic">Typhlodromus athiasae</Emphasis> on two citrus cultivars under greenhouse conditions

This study examined the efficacy of the predatory mite Typhlodromus athiasae Porath and Swirski (Acari: Phytoseiidae) as a biological control agent of the citrus red mite Panonychus citri (McGregor) (Acari: Tetranychidae) on seedlings of Washington and Valencia citrus cultivars at 1:10, 1:20 and 1:40 predator:prey release ratios under greenhouse conditions. At predator:prey ratios of 1:10, significant reductions on P. citri populations were observed one week after release of T. athiasae, and populations remained at low levels thereafter. The highest mean numbers of P. citri were found in the third week on the Washington cultivar and in the fourth week on Valencia, in a control group with no predators. This study demonstrates the potential of T. athiasae to effectively control P. citri on Washington and Valencia cultivars under greenhouse conditions at predator:prey ratios of 1:10. However, T. athiasae was unable to control the citrus red mite populations when the predator:prey ratio was reduced to 1:40. We therefore recommend a release ratio of 1:10 for effective control of P. citri in greenhouses on seedlings of Washington and Valencia citrus.     

Behavioral Response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tamarixia radiata</Emphasis> (Waterston) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) to Volatiles Emanating from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) and Citrus

Tamarixia radiata Waterston (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is an effective idiobiont ectoparasitoid of the psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), vector of the huanglongbing (HLB). We examined the olfactory responses of T. radiata to volatiles emanating from D. citri or plant volatiles using a custom designed T-maze olfactometer and open arena bioassays. We also examined the behavioral response of male and female T. radiata to conspecifics of the opposite sex to determine whether olfactory signals mediate mate location. T. radiata adults exhibited a sexually dimorphic response to volatiles emanating from D. citri and citrus. Female T. radiata responded positively to the odors emanating from D. citri nymphs in both olfactometer and open arena bioassays. However, female wasps showed no response to odors emanating from D. citri adults, D. citri honey dew secretions, intact citrus or orange jasmine leaves. Odors emanating from D. citri damaged citrus were not attractive to T. radiata females but stimulated attraction of wasps to D. citri on damaged plants. T. radiata females were not attracted to D. citri immatures when they were presented as visual cues. Male T. radiata did not show attraction to D. citri nymphs or other putative odors that were attractive to female T. radiata. In olfactometer bioassays, more male T. radiata responded to the odor of female conspecifics than blank controls in the absence of associated citrus host plant volatiles. Odors emanating from female T. radiata were not attractive to male T. radiata. Male or female T. radiata were not attracted to the odors emanating from same sex conspecifics. Both male and female T. radiata adults showed positive phototactic behavior. Collectively, our results provide behavioral evidence that: 1) female T. radiata use volatiles emanating from D. citri nymphs to locate its host and: 2) female T. radiata release a volatile pheromone that attracts male conspecifics.     

Trail Chemicals of the Convergens Ladybird Beetle, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hippodamia convergens</Emphasis>, Reduce Feeding and Oviposition by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis> (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) on Citrus Plants

We investigated feeding and oviposition behavior of the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, when exposed to the foraging trails of the convergens ladybird beetle, Hippodamia convergens. Diaphorina citri females feeding on citrus leaves directly exposed to the ladybird adults or treated with trail extract excreted significantly less honeydew droplets than controls. The trail chemicals of the ladybird beetle also decreased oviposition by D. citri females on citrus. In a no-choice experiment, D. citri females preferred to oviposit on control flush and plants than those with ladybird trail-extract treatments. In two-choice experiments, 68.0% of D. citri released into cages exhibited strong selection preference for settling and eventual oviposition on control plants than plants treated with ladybird trail extract. Diaphorina citri eggs were found on all new leaf flush of control plants, whereas only 29.5% of flush on treatment plants were selected for oviposition. The trail chemical deposited by the convergens ladybird beetle elicits repellency of D. citri feeding and oviposition. Therefore, the trail chemicals my contain components that could be useful for behavior-based management of D. citri and HLB disease by reducing psyllid feeding and oviposition.     

Leaf age affects the efficacy of insecticides to control Asian citrus psyllid,Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae)

Huanglongbing (HLB), the most destructive citrus disease worldwide, is associated with the bacteria transmitted by the psyllid Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae). One of the main tactics used to manage this disease is the chemical control of D. citri. In this study, the efficacy of four insecticides commonly used by the citrus growers against the D. citri adults was assessed in two vegetative growth stages of flush: young shoots (~ 10 cm in length) and mature leaves. The bioassays were carried out under the greenhouse and field conditions. The insecticides bifenthrin, dimethoate, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam were tested at the recommended rates of 15, 450, 40 and 25 mg/L of water, respectively. The insecticides were sprayed onto the leaves of each stage until runoff. Psyllid mortality was assessed at different periods after insecticide application (0, 1 and 2 weeks). In both greenhouse and field trees, the period of control was shorter in the young shoots than in the mature leaves. In addition, the efficacy of insecticides rapidly decreased in the young shoots over time, mainly for imidacloprid and bifenthrin (less than 1 week). Thus, these results suggest that the number of spray applications to control D. citri should be more frequent during the flushing period.     

Acute Toxicity of Fresh and Aged Residues of Pesticides to the Parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tamarixia radiata</Emphasis> and to the HLB-Bacteria Vector <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diaphorina citri</Emphasis>

One method for controlling the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, the vector of the putative causal agent of Huanglongbing, uses the parasitoid Tamarixia radiata (Waterston). However, the general intensive use of insecticides has reduced the numbers of this parasitoid. This study evaluated the effect of the residual action of 24 insecticides on T. radiata and also determined the differential toxicity of insecticides to D. citri and T. radiata, using three bioassays. In the first, when adults of the parasitoid were exposed to residues of the 24 insecticides, ten were considered short-life (class 1), six slightly persistent (class 2), five moderately persistent (class 3), and three insecticides were considered persistent (class 4), under the IOBC/WPRS classification system. The second bioassay evaluated the sublethal concentrations of the persistent insecticides (formetanate, dimethoate, spinosad). Increasing the concentrations of the insecticides increased the number that were classified as persistent. In the third bioassay, evaluation of the differential toxicity of eight insecticides to the ACP and the parasitoid showed that chlorpyrifos and bifenthrin were more harmful to T. radiata. Therefore, these two insecticides are not recommended for application at the time of parasitoid release. Cypermethrin, imidacloprid, and dimethoate caused higher mortality of D. citri and are most often recommended in IPM programs. The choice of an insecticide for the control of citrus pests must be made with care, aiming to preserve the natural enemies in the ecosystem, and thereby contribute to the success of biological control.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

Acaricidal active fractions from acetone extract of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aloe vera</Emphasis> L. against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus cinnabarinus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panonychus citri</Emphasis>

This study aimed to isolate acaricidal active fractions from acetone extract of Aloe vera L. and investigate the toxicity of these fractions against Tetranychus cinnabarinus (T. cinnabarinus) and Panonychus citri (P. citri). Acetone extract of A. vera L. was isolated by immersing in acetone for 72 h, and diverse fractions were fractionated by column chromatography. The acaricidal activity of each fractions was evaluated by corrected mortality of T. cinnabarinus through slide-dip bioassay. The 8th and 13th fractions of acetone extract with good acaricidal activity were indentified by LC/MS, and the toxicity of these two fractions to T. cinnabarinus and P. citri was identified by regression analysis. Acetone extract of A. vera L. exhibited obvious acaricidal activity, from which a total of 18 fractions were isolated. The 8th and 13th fractions with strong acaricidal activity against T. cinnabarinus were identified to be 3-O-alpha-d-mannopyranosyl-d-mannopyranose (OAMM) and aloe emodin. When compared with spirodiclofen, both OAMM and aloe emodin exhibited higher toxicity to T. cinnabarinus, while only OAMM exhibited a higher toxicity to P. citri (P < 0.05). OAMM and aloe emodin isolated from acetone extract of A. vera L. exhibited obvious acaricidal activities against T. cinnabarinus and P. citri.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Haematospirillum</Emphasis> and insect <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolbachia</Emphasis> DNA in avian blood

In this study, blood samples of 259 Acrocephalus sp. warblers were molecularly analysed for Anaplasmataceae and Rhodospirillaceae based on PCR amplification of 16S rRNA gene fragments. One bird blood sample (from Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus) yielded a sequence with 99.8% identity to Haematospirillum jordaniae. This is the first molecular evidence for the occurrence of this species in the blood of any vertebrate other than human. Another bird blood sample (from Marsh Warbler: Acrocephalus palustris) yielded a Wolbachia sequence, closely related to a moth endosymbiont with 99.8% identity. A nematode origin of Wolbachia DNA detected here in avian blood can be excluded, because results of phylogenetic analysis showed its closest alignment with insect wolbachiae. This is the first finding of insect Wolbachia DNA in the circulatory system of birds, which can be explained either by the inoculation of wolbachiae by blood-sucking vectors, or passing of Wolbachia DNA from the gut into the blood of this insectivorous bird species.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Funastrum rupicola</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Apocynaceae:</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">Asclepiadoideae</Emphasis>), a new species from Bolivia

Summary   Funastrum rupicola Goyder, a new species of Apocynaceae: Asclepiadoideae from Bolivia, is described and illustrated. The conservation status of this species is assessed.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.