A new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vanilla</Emphasis> (Orchidaceae: Vanilloideae) from São Paulo,Brazil

A new orchid species, Vanilla paludosa, native to marshy forests close to cerrado vegetation in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, is described and illustrated. The relationship of V. paludosa to other species of the genus is discussed.     

Births during 7 years after the translocation of a pair of black-and-gold howler monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta caraya</Emphasis>) to a forest fragment in southeast Brazil

Fecundity in female primates is influenced by the nutritional condition. If when translocated howler monkeys exhibit the same breeding patterns as non-translocated members of the same genus, it is an indication that the translocated monkeys have become well adapted to their release site and that they are likely in good nutritional condition. The objective of this study was therefore to investigate this pattern by recording copulations (over 5 years) and births (over 7 years) after the translocation of a pair of black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) and to evaluate their gestation period, seasonality of births, and intervals between births. The pair was released in November 2009 on the campus of the University of São Paulo in Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo State, Brazil. Data on copulations were collected from January 2010 to March 2011 and from January 2012 to December 2014. Births were collected from January 2010 to December 2016. During the 5-year observation period, 25 copulations were recorded. Seven births were recorded over a period of 7 years, which included reproduction of the offspring of the translocated pair. Births occurred in the dry season between April and August. The interval between births was approximately 1 year. Our data provide insight into the reproduction of howler monkeys that have been translocated to a new habitat. Translocation can provide a valuable approach for rescuing or restoring Alouatta, whose populations have been detrimentally impacted by long-term habitat fragmentation.     

Growth rate and carrageenan analyses in four strains of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Kappaphycus alvarezii</Emphasis> (Rhodophyta,Gigartinales) farmed in the subtropical waters of São Paulo State,Brazil

Growth rate, semi-refined and refined carrageenan yields, 3,6-anhydrogalactose and sulphate contents, and gel strength were investigated in four strains of Kappaphycus alvarezii (brown, green and red tetrasporophytic strains, and one strain derived from tetraspores progeny, called G11) farmed in subtropical waters of São Paulo State, Brazil. All studied strains showed higher growth rates from February to May, decreasing from July to December. The G11 strain exhibited lower growth rates, but had semi-refined and refined carrageenan yields significantly higher than the others and similar to a commercial sample. A negative correlation between growth rate and semi-refined carrageenan yield was verified for all strains. The brown strain had the lowest content of 3,6-anhydrogalactose, while G11 and green strains showed higher values. No clear pattern of variation and no relationship were observed for sulphate and gel strength. However, all strains presented gel strength values near the one obtained from commercial sample. These results show that the carrageenan extracted from brown, green, red, and G11 strains of K. alvarezii cultured in subtropical waters of São Paulo State, Brazil with commercial potentials.     

Genetic analysis of forest species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eugenia uniflora</Emphasis> L. through of newly developed SSR markers

Nine microsatellite loci for genetic analysis of three populations of the tropical tree Eugenia uniflora L. (pitanga or Brazilian cherry) from fragments of semideciduous forest were developed. We used the technique of building a (GA) _n and (CA) _n microsatellite-enriched library by capture with streptavidin-coated magnetic beads. We assessed the polymorphism of seven microsatellites in 84 mature trees found in three areas (Ribeirão Preto, Tambaú and São José do Rio Pardo), highly impacted by the agricultural practices, in a large region among Pardo river and Mogi-Guaçu river basins, in state of São Paulo, Brazil. All loci were polymorphic, and the number of alleles was high, ranging from 6 to 24, with a mean of 14.4. All stands showed the same high level of genetic diversity (mean H _E  = 0.83) and a low genetic differentiation (mean F _ST = 0.031), indicating that genetic diversity was higher within rather than among populations. Seven of the nine loci were highly variable, and sufficiently informative for E. uniflora. It was concluded that these new SSR markers can be efficiently used for gene flow studies.     

Milbemectin resistance in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus urticae</Emphasis> (Acari: Tetranychidae): selection,stability and cross-resistance to abamectin

Studies on artificial laboratory selections with milbemectin, stability of milbemectin resistance and possible cross-resistance with abamectin were carried out with Tetranychus urticae Koch to provide basic information for a milbemectin resistance management program. Selections for resistance and susceptibility to milbemectin were performed in a population of T. urticae, collected from a commercial chrysanthemum field in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. After six selections for resistance and five selections for susceptibility, susceptible (S) and resistant (R) strains of T. urticae to milbemectin were obtained. The resistance ratio (R/S) at the LC₅₀ reached 409-fold value. The stability of milbemectin resistance was also studied under laboratory conditions, using a population with initial frequency of 75% of resistant mites. The frequencies of milbemectin resistance were evaluated monthly for a period of 7 months. In order to observe possible correlation between milbemectin and abamectin resistance, the frequencies of abamectin resistance were also evaluated for that population, during the same period. The frequency of milbemectin resistance decreased from 75 to 14.5%, while the percentage of abamectin resistant mites decreased from 57 to 9.1%, in 7 months. The frequencies of milbemectin and abamectin resistance were also evaluated in 25 field populations of T. urticae, collected from several crops in the State of São Paulo. The frequencies of milbemectin resistance varied from 4.1 to 89.5%, and of abamectin, from 7.0 to 90.5%. A positive and significant correlation was observed between the frequencies of milbemectin and abamectin resistance, indicating positive cross-resistance between these acaricides. The results indicate that abamectin should be avoided for managing milbemectin resistance in T. urticae. This is the first report on milbemectin resistance in T. urticae in Brazil.     

Carnivore mammals in a fragmented landscape in northeast of São Paulo State,Brazil

São Paulo is the most developed state in Brazil and little of its native vegetation remains. In Luiz Antonio and Santa Rita do Passa Quatro municipalities, only small fragments of cerrado (Brazilian savanna) physiognomies (cerradão, cerrado sensu stricto) and of semideciduous forest have been left, surrounded by eucalyptus silviculture and sugar-cane agriculture. However, that vegetation mosaic still shelters large mammals, including several carnivore species. To detect the carnivores present in such a mosaic area (50,000 ha), and to find out how they use the landscape, we recorded them through 21 camera traps and 21 track plots, during 18 months. Species richness, diversity and relative frequency were evaluated according to the habitat. Ten species were recorded, some of them locally threatened to extinction (Puma concolor, Leopardus pardalis, Chrysocyon brachyurus). Species diversity did not significantly differ among fragments, and although most species preferred one or another habitat, the carnivore community as a whole explored all the study area regardless of the vegetation cover; eucalyptus plantations were as used by the carnivores as the native fragments. Therefore, it seems possible to maintain such animals in agricultural landscapes, where some large native fragments are left and the matrix is permeable to native fauna.     

Clonal Transmission of ESBL-Producing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Klebsiella</Emphasis> spp. at a University Hospital in Brazil

The present study was designed to determine the prevalence and extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) types in clinical isolates of Klebsiella spp. at a university hospital located in the Brazilian southern region (Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo) as well as their antibiotic susceptibility and genetic profiles. This study included 147 non-repeat Klebsiella spp. isolates collected from January to June 2000, of which 23 K. pneumoniae and 8 K. oxytoca were selected as ESBL producers by using the Oxoid combination disk method and Etest ESBL strip. β-lactamases were characterized by IEF, PCR and sequencing assays using primers for ESBL genes. Antibiotic susceptibility was evaluated by MicroScan system. Dissemination of two major clones of ESBL-producing Klebsiella spp. occurred in the hospital. According to the results obtained in this study there was a clonal spread of CTX-M-producing K. oxytoca in five clinics and dissemination of ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae in the nursery and pediatrics wards.     

A new species of Calyptranthes (Myrtaceae) from southeastern Brazil

Calyptranthes fusiformis (Myrtaceae), a new species from coastal forests of São Paulo, Brazil, is described and illustrated.     

The same old mistakes in aquaculture: the newly-available striped catfish <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pangasianodon hypophthalmus</Emphasis> is on its way to putting Brazilian freshwater ecosystems at risk

In the state of São Paulo in southeastern Brazil, a dangerous decree allows the culture of hybrids and non-native extralimital fish species in the Paraná and East Atlantic River basins. We recorded the illegal importation and sale of the non-native striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus in northeastern, central-western, southeastern, and southern areas of the country. This species is already consumed across Brazil and is cultivated for ornamental purposes. Besides escapes from fish farms and ‘fish and pays’, P. hypophthalmus can reach natural environments through aquarium dumping and ornamental ponds, motivated by its large size that reach after being sold at small size. The species has been introduced in many countries, and if established in Brazil, could put native Brazilian biodiversity and ecosystems at risk. Although importing specimens of P. hypophthalmus is prohibited by law, Decree 62.243/2016 in the state of São Paulo creates a new opportunity for invasion. In fact, once a novel fish species is moved to a new continent, it is irrational to supposed that it will stay static just in the area for which it was intended. In general, the fish disperse in the novel area on their own, by escapes from captivity or deliberate and illicit releases by persons or associations. The unwise attitude of Brazilian decision-makers and lay people in their attempt to develop aquaculture with non-native species goes against the objectives of responsible aquaculture based in native species.     

Two new species of Plinia (Myrtaceae) from coastal forests of Brazil

Plinia complanata andPlinia pauciflora, two new species from coastal forests of São Paulo state, southeastern Brazil, are described and illustrated.     

A new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Senecio</Emphasis> (Asteraceae: Senecionae) from southeastern Brazil

Senecio altimontanus, a new species from the states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo, Brazil, is described and illustrated. Senecio altimontanus appears to be restricted to high-elevation grasslands (campos de altitude). This new species is characterized by its usually simple stems that are densely leafy apically, coriaceous leaves, and 1–5 corymbiform capitulescences. It is closely related to Senecio apensis from which it differs by the size, shape, and margins of the leaves, the number of phyllaries, and pubescence of the cypselae.     

Characterization of the genetic diversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</Emphasis> in São Paulo city,Brazil

Background

Tuberculosis is a major health problem in São Paulo, Brazil, which is the most populous and one of the most cosmopolitan cities in South America. To characterize the genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the population of this city, the genotyping techniques of spoligotyping and MIRU were applied to 93 isolates collected in two consecutive years from 93 different tuberculosis patients residing in São Paulo city and attending the Clemente Ferreira Institute (the reference clinic for the treatment of tuberculosis).

Findings

Spoligotyping generated 53 different spoligotype patterns. Fifty-one isolates (54.8%) were grouped into 13 spoligotyping clusters. Seventy- two strains (77.4%) showed spoligotypes described in the international databases (SpolDB4, SITVIT), and 21 (22.6%) showed unidentified patterns. The most frequent spoligotype families were Latin American Mediterranean (LAM) (26 isolates), followed by the T family (24 isolates) and Haarlem (H) (11 isolates), which together accounted for 65.4% of all the isolates. These three families represent the major genotypes found in Africa, Central America, South America and Europe. Six Spoligo-International-types (designated SITs by the database) comprised 51.8% (37/72) of all the identified spoligotypes (SIT53, SIT50, SIT42, SIT60, SIT17 and SIT1). Other SITs found in this study indicated the great genetic diversity of M. tuberculosis, reflecting the remarkable ethnic diversity of São Paulo city inhabitants. The MIRU technique was more discriminatory and did not identify any genetic clusters with 100% similarity among the 93 isolates. The allelic analysis showed that MIRU loci 26, 40, 23 and 10 were the most discriminatory. When MIRU and spoligotyping techniques were combined, all isolates grouped in the 13 spoligotyping clusters were separated.

Conclusions

Our data indicated the genomic stability of over 50% of spoligotypes identified in São Paulo and the great genetic diversity of M. tuberculosis isolates in the remaining SITs, reflecting the large ethnic mix of the São Paulo city inhabitants. The results also indicated that in this city, M. tuberculosis isolates acquired drug resistance independently of genotype and that resistance was more dependent on the selective pressure of treatment failure and the environmental circumstances of patients.

     

Diet of Southern Muriquis in Continuous Brazilian Atlantic Forest

We systematically collected data on feeding behavior for one group of 33–39 southern muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) in Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho (PECB), São Paulo State, Brazil (37,432.45 ha of continuous Atlantic Forest), between January and December 1995. We determined food item consumption from instantaneous scans of behavior. Fruits were the most eaten food items in all 12 mo (40–80% of scan in every mo, average = 71.3%). Muriquis ate young leaves more than mature leaves or flowers. Our results are consistent with previous findings at the same and neighboring forest sites that southern muriquis have a consistently frugivorous diet when inhabiting less disturbed habitats, but contrast with previous observations on oppportunistic frugivory in muriqui populations inhabiting fragmented forests. Sustained high levels of frugivory probably result from year-round availability of fruit within large continuous forests.     

Food habits of three carnivores in a mosaic landscape of São Paulo state,Brazil

São Paulo is the most developed state in Brazil, but despite intense land use changes, some mammal species still inhabit remnant fragments of native vegetation of the state. We used fecal analyses to investigate prey diversity, trophic niche breadth, and trophic niche overlap of pumas, ocelots, and maned wolves in protected and non-protected areas in São Paulo state. During 18 months, we inspected more than 10,000 km of roads and trails and collected 233 fecal samples. Maned wolves showed generalist food habit, ocelots were predominantly carnivores, and pumas were strict carnivores. The European hare, an exotic species which had not yet been reported in the study area, was identified in the feces of a puma. Trophic niche breadth was the lowest for maned wolves (BA?=?0.339) and the highest for pumas (BA?=?0.723). Trophic niche overlap was high between maned wolves and ocelots (O_jk?=?0.765) and between pumas and ocelots (O_jk?=?0.639). Significantly different diets of maned wolves and ocelots were observed between dry and rainy seasons. Our findings indicate that these three species may adapt their diets to the disturbed landscapes. This is the second study characterizing food habits of ocelots in Cerrado areas but the first considering a large number of samples.     

Diversity of endophytic fungi in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus microcorys</Emphasis> assessed by complementary isolation methods

Brazil is the world’s largest producer country of eucalyptus. Although widely applied in the charcoal industry, no studies have focused on the microorganisms associated with Eucalyptus microcorys. Here, we evaluated the composition and structure of endophytic fungal communities in leaves of E. microcorys through two isolation techniques. A total of 120 fresh leaves were collected in a year-long survey at an eucalyptus plantation in the State of São Paulo (Brazil). Endophytic fungi were isolated by particle filtration (PF) and direct leaf fragment plating (LP) in two media: modified dicloran and synthetic nutrient agar, both supplemented with rose bengal and chloramphenicol. The isolates were grouped into morphospecies and identified by morphology and DNA sequencing. We recovered a total of 709 isolates, representing 59 taxa. All taxa found are reported as endophytic for the first time for E. microcorys. Castanediella eucalypticola and Neophaeomoniella eucalypti are new occurrences reported for Brazil. The LP technique recovered a higher number of taxa and isolates than the PF. However, the PF technique retrieved a higher species/isolate ratio than the LP method, 0.12 and 0.09, respectively. Fungal diversity assessed by diversity metrics did not significantly differ between isolation methods. Both techniques recovered a high number of unique taxa, demonstrating that neither method would individually represent the species richness from E. microcorys. The use of LP and PF provided a greater number of observed taxa and consequently new occurrence of species for Brazil.     

Impact of invasive slash pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus elliottii</Emphasis>) on groundcover vegetation at home and abroad

Invasive trees can cause catastrophic reductions in diversity in invaded grasslands and savannas. Such reductions often appear to be particularly severe in the new biogeographic ranges of these invaders. We present results of a field study that examined the effect of slash pine (Pinus elliottii), native to the southeastern US, on savanna groundcover vegetation in the state of São Paulo in Brazil (cerrado) and in its native range in Mississippi (USA) following fire exclusion. We compared the difference in several community attributes between slash pine understories and adjacent open area in both São Paulo and Mississippi, and compared the effects of needle litter on native species in both continents. Slash pine was correlated with lower non-graminoid species richness and plant density in both São Paulo and Mississippi; however, these apparent negative effects were 4.6 and 11 times stronger in the non-native range of Brazil (for richness and density, respectively). Native graminoids were not present in invaded cerrado. Overhead slash pine canopy cover, pine density, and needle depth were 5.2, 3.7, and at 14 times higher, respectively, in Brazil than in Mississippi savannas, for similarly-aged pine stands. One year after implementing needle litter treatments in Brazilian cerrado and restored Mississippi savanna, plant density and non-graminoid species richness were highly suppressed, but to similar degrees in both ranges. Our results suggest that higher rates of needle deposition, associated with higher tree densities, contribute to the stronger suppression of native species in Brazil than in Mississippi.     

Ecological aspects of hermit crabs (Crustacea,Anomura, Paguroidea) off the northern coast of São Paulo State,Brazil

The occurrence of species of hermit crabs and their ecological distribution in soft bottoms off Ubatuba, São Paulo, Brazil were analyzed. To better understand the distribution of the species in relation to environmental factors, the similarity and species-diversity indexes were calculated. Paguroideans were sampled monthly from January through December 2000. The trawls were made with two otter-trawl nets at 13 different sites, at depths of 2–40 m. Water temperature, salinity, sediment texture, and organic matter content were measured. Gastropod shells occupied by hermit crabs were also assessed. A total of 1,238 specimens was collected, belonging to the families Diogenidae and Paguridae, comprising seven genera and thirteen species. The most abundant hermit crab species were Dardanus insignis (761 specimens) and Loxopagurus loxochelis (351 specimens). Phimochirus holthuisi is newly reported from the São Paulo coast. The highest diversity index was found for the shallower sites near rocky shores. The results of the grouping analysis for sites and species indicated three distinct groups for sites, and four groups for species. This suggests that the occurrence of these anomurans is associated with the environmental and biotic factors analyzed.     

The fitness of the Brazilian damsel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stegastes fuscus</Emphasis> is increased by sharing the territory with the dusky grouper <Emphasis Type="Italic">Epinephelus marginatus</Emphasis>

Stegastes fuscus and Epinephelus marginatus are known for co-habiting shelters. The damselfish S. fuscus uses the territory for nesting and must protect its eggs from grazers; the grouper E. marginatus is an omnivorous sit-and-wait predator. This study aims to evaluate the effect of juvenile groupers on the reproductive success of the Brazilian damsel. Twenty-five hours of underwater observations were done in São Sebastião and Ilhabela, Northern shore of São Paulo, Brazil. Fitness increase was measured by the egg-clutch area and number of contributing females in 130 nests shared by groupers and another 130 where damselfishes stood alone. An egg predator crab was placed into the damselfish territory, and behavioural responses during 2 min were recorded for nests with or without E. marginatus, 80 replicates each. Nests shared by the dusky groupers had more eggs and received eggs from more females too. While fathers who were alone in the territory had to deal with the egg predator crab, in shared nests, the grouper would take care of the intruder, sometimes feeding on it. Therefore, the Brazilian damsel may benefit from the presence of the dusky grouper by increasing the fitness and diminishing the costs of parental care.     

Resistance of Cyanobacterial Fouling on Architectural Paint Films to Cleaning by Water Jet

Mortar panels painted with three different white acrylic coatings were exposed to the environment in urban (São Paulo) and rural (Pirassununga) sites in Brazil for 7 years. After this time, all panels were almost equally discoloured, and paint detachment was observed to only a small degree. The biofilms were composed mainly of cyanobacteria and filamentous fungi, principal genera being Gloeocapsa and Chroococcidiopsis of the cyanobacteria, and Cladosporium and Alternaria of the fungi. Two of the three paints in Pirassununga became covered by a pink film that contained red-encapsulated Gloeocapsa and clay particles. The third, an 800% elastomeric matt formulation, became discoloured with a grey, only slightly pink, film, although the same cyanobacteria were present. The levels of paint detachments from all films in both locations were low, with rating range of 0–1 of a maximum 5 (100% detachment). After high-pressure water jetting, paint detachments increased at both locations, up to 2 in Pirassununga and 3 in São Paulo. Discoloration decreased; L*A*B* analysis of surface discoloration showed that ΔE (alteration in colour from the original paint film) changed from 28–39 before cleaning to 13–16 afterwards. The pink coloration was not entirely removed from Pirassununga samples, suggesting that cyanobacterial cells are difficult to detach, and microscopic analysis of the biofilms confirmed that Gloeocapsa was still present as the principal contaminant on all surfaces, with Chroococcidiopsis being present as the second most common. Almost no fungi were detected after water jet application.