Determining the spatial autocorrelation of dengue vector populations: influences of mosquito sampling method,covariables, and vector control

We investigated spatial autocorrelation of female Aedes aegypti L. mosquito abundance from BG‐Sentinel trap and sticky ovitrap collections in Cairns, north Queensland, Australia. BG‐Sentinel trap collections in 2010 show a significant spatial autocorrelation across the study site and over a smaller spatial extent, while sticky ovitrap collections only indicate a non‐significant, weak spatial autocorrelation. The BG‐Sentinel trap collections were suitable for spatial interpolation using ordinary kriging and cokriging techniques. The uses of Premise Condition Index and potential breeding container data have helped improve our prediction of vector abundance. Semiovariograms and prediction maps indicate that the spatial autocorrelation of mosquito abundance determined by BG‐Sentinel traps extends farther compared to sticky ovitrap collections. Based on our data, fewer BG‐Sentinel traps are required to represent vector abundance at a series of houses compared to sticky ovitraps. A lack of spatial structure was observed following vector control treatment in the area. This finding has implications for the design and costs of dengue vector surveillance programs.     

Development of a novel sticky trap for container-breeding mosquitoes and evaluation of its sampling properties to monitor urban populations of Aedes albopictus

Collection methods currently used for large-scale sampling of adult Stegomyia mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) present several operational limitations, which constitute major drawbacks to the epidemiological surveillance of arboviruses, the evaluation of the impact of control strategies, and the surveillance of the spreading of allochthonous species into non-endemic regions. Here, we describe a new sticky trap designed to capture adult container-breeding mosquitoes and to monitor their population dynamics. We tested the sampling properties of the sticky trap in Rome, Italy, where Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus is common. The results of our observations, and the comparison between sticky trap catches and catches made with the standard oviposition trap, are presented. The sticky trap collected significantly larger numbers of Ae. albopictus females than any other Culicidae species representing >90% of the total catches. A maximum of 83 An. albopictus females was collected in a single week. A high correlation (Pearson correlation coefficient r= 0.96) was found between the number of females and the number of eggs collected by the traps. The functional relationship between the number of eggs and the number of adult females was assessed by major axis regression fitted to log(1 +x)-transformed trap counts as y= 0.065 + 1.695x. Trap samples significantly departed from a random distribution; Taylor's power law was fitted to the trap samples to quantify the degree of aggregation in the catches, returning the equations s(2)= 2.401 m(1.325) for the sticky trap and s(2)= 13.068 m(1.441) for the ovitrap, with s(2) and m denoting the weekly catch variance and mean, respectively, indicating that eggs were significantly more aggregated than mosquitoes (P < 0.0001). Taylor's power law parameters were used to estimate the minimum number of sample units necessary to obtain sample estimates with a fixed degree of precision and sensitivity. For the range of densities encountered in our study area during the Ae. albopictus breeding season, the sticky trap was more precise and sensitive than the ovitrap. At low population densities (c. < 0.1 mosquito/trap), however, the ovitrap was more sensitive at detecting the presence of this species. Overall, our results indicate that our new model of sticky trap can be used to sample Ae. albopictus females in urban environments, and, possibly, other container-breeding Stegomyia mosquitoes (e.g. Aedes aegypti). The technical properties of the new trap are discussed with respect to its possible application in monitoring the population dynamics of container-breeding mosquitoes, in studying their bionomics, and in vector surveillance and, possibly, control.     

Evaluation of collection methods for Culex quinquefasciatus,Aedes aegypti,and Aedes simpsoni in northeastern Tanzania

In East Africa, significant morbidity and mortality are caused by infections spread by Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti. Sticky traps have been shown to be effective tools for sampling populations of Aedes mosquitoes and have been found to catch Cx. quinquefasciatus. Thus, they could potentially be used to sample populations of this species. This study compared Sticky ovitraps (SO) and MosquiTraps (MQT) with the CDC Gravid trap (CDC‐GT) for collection of Culex and Aedes mosquito populations in Tanzania. A follow‐up experiment was carried out using traps set for a 24‐h period to accommodate the oviposition habits of Aedes aegypti and Ae. simpsoni s.l. mosquitoes. The results showed that the CDC‐GT caught significantly more Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti than the SO or MQT, but there was no significant difference in the number of mosquitoes caught between the two sticky traps or of Ae. simpsoni s.l. caught among the three trap types. The results suggest that CDC‐GTs are the most appropriate in sampling of Cx. quinquefasciatus. Although CDC‐GTs collected more Ae. aegypti than the sticky traps, the simplicity and cost benefit of sticky traps facilitates large scale studies. All three trap types should be considered for monitoring Aedes mosquitoes.     

Evaluation of a peridomestic mosquito trap for integration into an Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) push-pull control strategy

We determined the feasibility of using the BG‐Sentinel? mosquito trap (BGS) as the pull component in a push‐pull strategy to reduce indoor biting by Aedes aegypti. This included evaluating varying numbers of traps (1–4) and mosquito release numbers (10, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250) on recapture rates under screen house conditions. Based on these variations in trap and mosquito numbers, release intervals were rotated through a completely randomized design with environmental factors (temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity) and monitored throughout each experiment. Data from four sampling time points (05:30, 09:30, 13:30, and 17:30) indicate a recapture range among treatments of 66–98%. Furthermore, 2–3 traps were as effective in recapturing mosquitoes as 4 traps for all mosquito release numbers. Time trends indicate Day 1 (the day the mosquitoes were released) as the “impact period” for recapture with peak numbers of marked mosquitoes collected at 09:30 or 4 h post‐release. Information from this study will be used to guide the configuration of the BGS trap component of a push‐pull vector control strategy currently in the proof‐of‐concept stage of development in Thailand and Peru.     

Adult mosquito trap sensitivity for detecting exotic mosquito incursions and eradication: a study using EVS traps and the Australian southern saltmarsh mosquito, Aedes camptorhynchus

Adult mosquito traps are commonly used in biosecurity surveillance for the detection of exotic mosquito incursions or for the demonstration of elimination. However, traps are typically deployed without knowledge of how many are required for detecting differing numbers of the target species. The aim of this study was to determine the sensitivity (i.e., detection probability) provided by carbon dioxide-baited EVS traps for adult female Australian southern saltmarsh mosquitoes, Aedes camptorhynchus, a recent biosecurity problem for New Zealand. A mark-release-recapture study of three concurrently released cohorts (sized 56, 296, and 960), recaptured over four days with a matrix of 20 traps, was conducted in Australia. The detection probability for different numbers of traps and cohorts of different sizes was determined by random sampling of recapture data. Detection probability ranged from approximately 0.3 for a single trap detecting a cohort of 56 mosquitoes to 1.0 (certainty of detection) when seven or more traps were used. For detection of adult Ae. camptorhynchus around a known source, a matrix of traps provides a strong probability of detection. Conversely, the use of single traps deployed over very large areas to detect mosquitoes of unknown entry pathway is unlikely to be successful. These findings have implications for the design of mosquito surveillance for biosecurity.     

Evaluation of the sticky MosquiTRAP for detecting Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) during the dry season in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil

MosquiTRAP is a sticky trap specifically designed to capture gravid females of Aedes aegypti (L.) and allows the identification of the mosquito in the field during the inspection of the trap. This study aims to compare this sticky trap to larval and ovitrap surveys for field monitoring of A. aegypti during the dry season. The study was conducted from March to June of 2003 in 20 blocks of the district of Itapo?, Belo Horizonte, MG. The traps were monitored every week while the larval survey was conducted on a monthly basis. The larval index: Premise Index (PI) and Breteau Index (BI) had equal values throughout the experiment (1.72 in the first two months and zero in the last two). The container index (CI) during the first two months was 0.09 and 0.1%, respectively and zero in the last two. The Ovitrap Positive Index (OPI) ranged from 16.7 to 76.9%, and the MosquiTRAP Positive Index (MPI) ranged from 0 to 31.5%. The Egg Density Index (EDI) ranged from 26.6 to 82.8, while the Adult Density Index ranged from 0 to 1.6 throughout the experiment. Temperature and rainfall did not affect the Positive and Density Indices, although these environmental variables seemed to have affected the larvae indices. Although the MosquiTRAP caught a low number of Aedes mosquitoes during the study, it was more sensitive than the larval survey to detect the presence of Aedes mosquitoes.     

A comparison of larval,ovitrap and MosquiTRAP?surveillance for Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti

In Brazil, the entomological surveillance of Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti is performed by government-mandated larval surveys. In this study, the sensitivities of an adult sticky trap and traditional surveillance methodologies were compared. The study was performed over a 12-week period in a residential neighbourhood of the municipality of Pedro Leopoldo, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. An ovitrap and a MosquiTRAP were placed at opposite ends of each neighbourhood block (60 traps in total) and inspections were performed weekly. The study revealed significant correlations of moderate strength between the larval survey, ovitrap and MosquiTRAP measurements. A positive relationship was observed between temperature, adult capture measurements and egg collections, whereas precipitation and frequency of rainy days exhibited a negative relationship.     

Pest occurrence of Aedes rossicus close to the Arctic Circle in northern Sweden

Major nuisance species are found among the floodwater mosquitoes and snow‐pool mosquitoes, with the former being the main reason for mosquito control in most areas. Nuisance species vary with the area, and previous reports from northern areas conclude that the nuisance is most often caused by snow‐pool mosquitoes. We investigated the mosquito fauna and abundances of host‐seeking females using CDC traps baited with carbon dioxide, in Övertorneå city near the Arctic Circle in northern Sweden, after earlier complaints about massive mosquito nuisance. The abundance of host‐seeking female mosquitoes was high in 2014, with a maximum of ～15,400 individuals per CDC trap night, of which 89% was the floodwater mosquito Aedes rossicus. Surprisingly, the main nuisance species was a floodwater mosquito, occurring at the northernmost location it has ever been recorded in Sweden. Our report is probably the first documentation of such large numbers of Aedes rossicus in any locality and probably the first documentation of a severe floodwater mosquito nuisance near the Arctic Circle. Given the historical data on river discharge in the area, the nuisance is recurrent. We conclude that in northern localities, as well as in more southern localities, production of floodwater mosquitoes is a natural component of the floodplain fauna of rivers with a fluctuating water flow regime. Also, the floodwater mosquitoes Aedes sticticus and Aedes vexans were found north of their formerly known distribution in Sweden.     

Seasonal dynamics and habitat specificity of mosquitoes in an English wetland: implications for UK wetland management and restoration

We engaged in field studies of native mosquitoes in a Cambridgeshire Fen, investigating a) the habitat specificity and seasonal dynamics of our native fauna in an intensively managed wetland, b) the impact of water‐level and ditch management, and c) their colonization of an arable reversion to flooded grassland wetland expansion project. Studies from April to October, 2010 collected 14,000 adult mosquitoes (15 species) over 292 trap‐nights and ～4,000 pre‐imaginal mosquitoes (11 species). Open floodwater species (Aedes caspius and Aedes cinereus, 43.3%) and wet woodland species (Aedes cantans/annulipes and Aedes rusticus, 32.4%) dominated, highlighting the major impact of seasonal water‐level management on mosquito populations in an intensively managed wetland. In permanent habitats, managing marginal ditch vegetation and ditch drying significantly affect densities of pre‐imaginal anophelines and culicines, respectively. This study presents the first UK field evidence of the implications of wetland expansion through arable reversion on mosquito colonization. Understanding the heterogeneity of mosquito diversity, phenology, and abundance in intensively managed UK wetlands will be crucial to mitigating nuisance and vector species through habitat management and biocidal control.     

Mosquito traps for urban surveillance: collection efficacy and potential for use by citizen scientists

Mosquito‐borne diseases are a pervasive public health problem on a global scale, and effective management of them requires well‐designed surveillance programs for both vectors and pathogens. Mosquito traps are a common component of such programs, and their reach can be expanded by engaging citizen scientists. In this study in a southern Australian city, we compared the mosquito collection efficacy of two types of traps and assessed their suitability for use in citizen science programs. BG Sentinels and BG Gravid Aedes Trap (BG‐GAT) traps both collected Aedes and Culex species in similar proportions, albeit with the former collecting approximately nine times as many mosquitoes. However, BG Sentinels have a greater per unit cost than BG‐GATs and are restricted to deployment near power outlets. Importantly, despite being devised for collection of Aedes (Stegomyia) dengue vectors (such as Aedes aegypti), both traps can be effectively used in temperate climates for collection of a range of mosquito species. These traps could conceivably be used in citizen science programs to enhance the reach of surveillance at reduced cost.     

Evaluation of an oviposition‐stimulating kairomone for the yellow fever mosquito,Aedes aegypti,in Recife,Brazil

A synthetic mixture of an oviposition‐stimulating kairomone for the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, comprising of 83% tetradecanoic acid, 16% nonanoic acid and 1% tetradecanoic acid methyl ester (NTT, in short) was tested in a dengue endemic area in Recife, Brazil. Gravid female mosquitoes confined to a cage under semi‐field conditions deposited significantly higher numbers of eggs in traps baited with NTT at doses ranging from 0.6 to 600 ng/μl than in control (water) traps. When tested in homes, egg‐laying in traps baited with 60 ng NTT/μl (final concentration in trap, ≈3.33 ng/ml) and in control traps was not significantly different, but egg deposited in traps with lower dosage (6 ng NTT/μl; final concentration in trap, ≈0.33 ng/ml) was significantly higher than in control traps. In subsequent trials, the numbers of eggs laid in traps baited with 0.6 ng NTT/μl (final concentration in trap, ≈0.033 ng/ml) were not significantly different from the numbers deposited in trap loaded with 6 ng NTT/μl. Egg‐laying was significantly higher in these treatments than in control traps.     

The presence of white eggs in the monitoring of Aedes albopictus ( Diptera: Culicidae) by ovitraps

Using international trading and passive transportation routes, the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1894), has colonized Europe. While the most common tool to monitor the presence of the mosquito is the ovitrap, other kinds of eggs are occasionally found in the traps as well. Most of the eggs are easy to distinguish, however, some white‐yellow eggs have a similar shape and size to those of the tiger mosquito and are often falsely identified as freshly laid tiger mosquito eggs. We have shown that these eggs had been laid by Psychoda alternata Say, 1824, and the misinterpretation may cause large errors in calculating density and patterns of Ae. albopictus. To avoid mistakes, a microscopic observation should be done at least 48 h after collecting the sample to permit Ae. albopictus eggs to darken.     

Effect of CO2 concentration on mosquito collection rate using odor‐baited suction traps

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) has been used for decades to enhance capture of host‐seeking mosquitoes when released in association with traps commonly used by mosquito and vector control agencies. However, there is little published work evaluating the effect of altering CO₂ release rates relative to the number of mosquitoes captured in these traps. This study investigated how varying CO₂ concentration altered the mosquito collection rate at a freshwater wetlands in southern California. Host‐seeking mosquitoes were captured in CDC‐style traps baited with one of six CO₂ release rates ranging from 0–1,495 ml/min from gas cylinders. Species captured were Aedes vexans, Anopheles franciscanus, An. hermsi, Culex erythrothorax, and Cx. tarsalis. A biting midge, Culicoides sonorensis, was also captured. For all species, increasing CO₂ release rates resulted in increasing numbers of individual females captured, with the relative magnitude of this increase associated to some extent with known feeding preferences of these species. We found that variation in CO₂ release rate can significantly alter mosquito capture rates, potentially leading to imprecise estimates of vector activity if the relationship of CO₂ release rate to mosquito capture rate is not considered.     

Field optimisation of MosquiTRAP sampling for monitoring Aedes aegypti Linnaeus (Diptera: Culicidae)

A sticky trap designed to capture gravid Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti mosquitoes, MosquiTRAP, has been evaluated for monitoring this species in Brazil. However, the effects of trap densities on the capture rate of Ae. aegypti females and the sensitivity of vector detection are still unknown. After a preliminary study has identified areas of high and low female mosquito abundance, a set of experiments was conducted in four neighbourhoods of Belo Horizonte (state of Minas Gerais, Brazil) using densities of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 traps per block. Trap sensitivity (positive MosquiTRAP index) increased significantly when 1-8 MosquiTRAPs were installed per block in both high and low abundance areas. A strong fit was obtained for the total number of mosquitoes captured with increasing trap densities through a non-linear function (Box-Lucas) (r2 = 0,994), which likely exhibits saturation towards an equilibrium level. The capacity of the Mean Female Aedes Index to distinguish between areas of high and low Ae. aegypti abundance was also investigated; the achieved differentiation was shown to be dependent on the MosquiTRAP density.     

Entomological surveillance,spatial distribution,and diversity of Culicidae (Diptera) immatures in a rural area of the Atlantic Forest biome,State of São Paulo,Brazil

Because of the high adaptive capacity of mosquitoes, studies that focus on transitional environments become very important, such as those in rural areas, which are considered as bridges between wild diseases and human populations of urban areas. In this study, a survey of the existing species of mosquitoes was performed in an Atlantic Forest area of the city of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste, São Paulo state, Brazil, using traps for immatures and analyzing the frequency and distribution of these insects over the sampling months. Five mosquito species were found: Aedes albopictus (the most frequent species), Aedes aegypti, Aedes fluviatilis, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Toxorhynchites theobaldi. The 4,524 eggs collected in ovitraps showed the presence of the tribe Aedini. Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus were identified after larval hatching in the laboratory, with different spatial distributions: the first of which coincides with the area of greatest diversity calculated using the Simpson index, while the second does not. The association of ecological analysis of spatial diversity with simple methods of data collection enables the identification of possible epidemiological risk situations and is a strategy that may be implemented to monitor ecological processes resulting from the interaction among different species of mosquitoes.     

Diversity and seasonal abundances of mosquitoes at potential arboviral transmission sites in two different climate zones in Switzerland

Pathogens of medical or veterinary significance that are transmitted by mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are (re‐)emerging in Europe [e.g. West Nile virus (WNV), Dirofilaria nematodes]. Little is known about the spatiotemporal abundances of mosquito species in Switzerland. Therefore, mosquito population dynamics were investigated, focusing on areas of risk for sylvatic or synanthropic transmission, such as natural sites and suburban sites on either side of the Alpine crest. Repeated collections were made using Centers for Disease Control (CDC) traps, juvenile sampling and ovitrapping. A total of 122 831 mosquito specimens of 21 taxa were identified. Levels of mosquito species richness were similar at suburban sites and in natural zones in Switzerland. Mosquito abundances and seasonality were analysed with generalized linear mixed models based on 382 CDC trap samples (29 454 females) and revealed Aedes annulipes/cantans, Aedes geniculatus, Aedes japonicus, Aedes sticticus, Aedes vexans, Coquillettidia richiardii and Culex pipiens/torrentium as the dominant species overall. Abundances of these species were season‐dependent in most cases. There was an effect of site with regard to abundance (higher in natural zones), but not with respect to seasonality. Together with data on vector competence and the host preferences of different species, the present data contribute to assessments of risk for pathogen transmission. For example, both natural and suburban environments seem feasible as sites for amplification cycles of WNV and transmission to mammals.     

Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) fauna in an area endemic for West Nile virus

Mosquito collections with CDC light traps using dry ice and pigeon‐baited traps were carried out in south Moravia (Czech Republic) from April to October in 2007 and 2008 at two study sites. In 2007, 11 two‐day captures were carried out in two‐week intervals, and 1,490 female mosquitoes of nine species were caught. In 2008, 15 two‐day trappings of mosquitoes were carried out: 6,778 females of 22 species of mosquitoes were trapped. The results showed marked differences in abundance and species composition of mosquitoes between both study sites and between the trapping methods. In the floodplain forest ecosystem of the Soutok study area, Aedes vexans predominated. The species composition in the Nesyt study site was more varied and the most common species was Culex pipiens. At the latter study site, Anopheles hyrcanus (var. pseudopictus) and Uranotaenia unguiculata, mosquito species with largely southern Eurasian distribution, were repeatedly demonstrated. The largest capture of mosquitoes was in traps with CO₂ placed at a height 1 m above the ground. The capture of mosquitoes in the pigeon‐baited traps as well as in the traps with CO₂ placed in the canopy of trees was markedly lower in both study sites, with the predominant species being Culex pipiens.     

Laboratory testing of a lethal ovitrap for Aedes aegypti

Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the feasibility of making the mosquito ovitrap lethal to Aedes aegypti (L.) when they attempt to oviposit in the trap. Heavy-weight velour paper strips (2.54 x 11 cm) were used as an alternative to the wooden paddle normally provided as a substrate for mosquito oviposition. The paper strips were pretreated with insecticide solutions and allowed to dry before being used in oviposition cups of 473 ml capacity, filled with water initially to within 2.5 cm of the brim. Insecticides chosen for their quick knock-down efficacy were bendiocarb 76% WP (1.06 mg a.i./strip) and four pyrethroids: permethrin 25% WP (0.16 mg a.i./strip), deltamethin 4.75% SC (0.87 mg a.i./strip), cypermethrin 40% WP (2.81 mg a.i./strip), and cyfluthrin 20% WP (0.57 mg a.i./ strip). For experimental evaluation, two oviposition cups (one with an insecticide-treated strip and one with an untreated strip) were placed in cages (cubic 30 cm) with gravid female Ae. aegypti mosquitoes (aged 6-8 days) from a susceptible laboratory strain. Mortality-rates of female mosquitoes were 45% for bendiocarb, 47% for permethrin, 98% for deltamethrin, 100% for cypermethrin, and 100% for cyfluthrin. Young instar larvae added to the treated cups died within 2h. After water evaporation from the cups for 38 days, fresh mosquito females had access to previously submerged portions of the velour paper paddle, and mortality rates of 59% or more occurred. Cups that had water (360 ml) dripped into them, to simulate rain, produced female mosquito mortality rates of > 50% and all larvae died within 3 h of being added. These tests demonstrate that the ovitrap can be made lethal to both adults and larvae by insecticidal treatment of the ovistrip. Field efficacy trials are underway in Brazil to access the impact of this simple, low-cost, environmentally benign approach on populations of the dengue vector Ae. aegypti.     

The flight distances of floodwater mosquitoes (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aedes vexans,Ochlerotatus sticticus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ochlerotatus caspius</Emphasis>) in Osijek,Eastern Croatia

In spring 2004, the mark-release-recapture study was conducted in the Osijek area, covering the total of 171 km², to describe dispersal pattern of three floodwater mosquito species (Aedes vexans, Ochlerotatus sticticus and Oc. caspius). Forty CO₂ baited Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) traps were set at distances varying from 0.95 to 16.7 km from release site. Fifty thousand mosquitoes were released, and a total of 22 marked mosquitoes were recaptured in 12 traps, 82% of which were collected in the first six days after release. The maximum distance of recaptured mosquito (Oc. sticticus) was found at 11.68 km from the release site. During the study, the average dispersal rate per day for mosquitoes ranged from 0.96 km to 3.6 km in regard to different species.     

Understanding the mechanism of Chikungunya virus vector competence in three species of mosquitoes

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is primarily transmitted by Aedes spp. mosquitoes. The present study investigated vector competence for CHIKV in Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes found in Madurai, South India. The role of receptor proteins on midguts contributing to permissiveness of CHIKV to Aedes spp. mosquitoes was also undertaken. Mosquitoes were orally infected with CHIKV DRDE‐06. Infection of midguts and dissemination to heads was confirmed by immunofluorescence assay at different time points. A plaque assay was performed from mosquito homogenates at different time points to study CHIKV replication. Presence of putative CHIKV receptor proteins on mosquito midgut epithelial cells was detected by virus overlay protein binding assay (VOPBA). The identity of these proteins was established using mass spectrometry. CHIKV infection of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus midguts and dissemination to heads was observed to be similar. A plaque assay performed with infected mosquito homogenates revealed that CHIKV replication dynamics was similar in Aedes sp. mosquitoes until 28 days post infection. VOPBA performed with mosquito midgut membrane proteins revealed that prohibitin could serve as a putative CHIKV receptor on Aedes mosquito midguts, whereas an absence of CHIKV binding protein/s on Culex quinquefasciatus midguts can partially explain the non‐permissiveness of these mosquitoes to infection.