土霉素胁迫下拟南芥基因组DNA甲基化的MSAP分析

以拟南芥 (Arabidopsis thaliana)为材料,研究不同土霉素浓度下拟南芥幼苗生长发育及基因组DNA的甲基化水平和变化模式。结果表明,3、5、7\,9 μmol/L土霉素胁迫对拟南芥幼苗的根长和株高有显著抑制作用;但对拟南芥幼苗的侧根数量有显著促进作用。甲基化敏感扩增多态性 (methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism, MSAP)分析表明,经3、5、7\,9 μmol/L土霉素处理后基因组DNA甲基化比率分别为17.91%、12.50%、11.81%和14.62%,均低于对照 (18.18%)。结果表明,拟南芥经土霉素胁迫后存在基于 DNA甲基化水平和模式改变的表观遗传变异,5-甲基胞嘧啶百分含量的变化无统一趋势或规律。与对照相比,3、5、7\,9 μmol/L土霉素胁迫下拟南芥幼苗基因组DNA的甲基化和去甲基化分别为13.29%、9.22%、8.03%、12.59%和2.80%、4.26％、5.11%、4.90％。由此推测,DNA甲基化可能是植物适应土霉素胁迫机制的机制之一。     

甘露醇对拟南芥基因组DNA甲基化的影响

以拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana）为材料,研究不同浓度甘露醇处理下拟南芥幼苗生长发育及其基因组DNA的甲基化水平和变化模式。结果表明,用50、100、150和200mmol·L―1甘露醇处理拟南芥种子会对拟南芥幼苗的形态特征和生长态势产生影响;甲基化敏感扩增多态性（methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism,MSAP）分析表明,经50、100、150和200mmol·L―1甘露醇处理后,基因组DNA甲基化比率分别为17.75%、21.15%、15.49%和46.10%。甘露醇处理使拟南芥发生基于DNA甲基化水平和模式改变的表观遗传变异。与对照相比,在50、100、150和200mmol·L-1甘露醇处理下拟南芥幼苗基因组DNA的甲基化和去甲基化比率分别为5.78%、15.48%、10.71%、33.73%及10.98%、5.36%、8.33%、7.69%。由此推测,5-甲基胞嘧啶百分含量随着甘露醇胁迫的增强而发生不同程度的变化。     

5-azaC对小麦幼苗生长及盐胁迫后DNA甲基化变异的影响

DNA甲基化是调节植物生长发育,调控逆境基因表达的表观遗传机制之一。该研究采用不同浓度的DNA甲基化抑制剂5-azaC处理耐盐性不同的春小麦种子,分析其对种子萌发及盐胁迫后叶片基因组DNA甲基化的影响,探究DNA甲基化与小麦耐盐性之间的相关性。结果表明:(1)5-azaC显著抑制幼苗根长伸长,降低根系鲜重和干重。(2)甲基化敏感扩增多态性(MSAP)分析发现,单独盐胁迫后甲基化水平上升, 5-azaC预处理材料经盐胁迫后甲基化水平呈下降趋势。(3)盐胁迫后基因组同时发生DNA去甲基化和DNA甲基化。敏盐品种‘新春6号’DNA去甲基化比率上升,DNA甲基化增加的比率下降;耐盐品种‘新春11号’DNA去甲基化比率和DNA甲基化增加的比率均上升,但去甲基化比率大于DNA甲基化增加的比率,说明盐胁迫引起的基因组DNA去甲基化为主,5-azaC预处理提高了盐胁迫下DNA去甲基化的比率。(4)DNA甲基化修饰位点序列分析发现,在核糖体亚基蛋白、蛋白激酶和转座子序列均存在DNA甲基化修饰现象,说明存在多种代谢途径共同参与了盐胁迫调控。     

玉米杂交种及其亲本基因组DNA胞嘧啶甲基化水平研究

基因组DNA甲基化对基因表达起着重要的调控作用.本研究采用MSAP方法,对2个玉米杂交种及其相应亲本DNA 5'-CCG G位点胞嘧啶的甲基化水平进行分析,比较了2个玉米杂交种与其相应亲本的甲基化类型与差异.研究发现,2个玉米杂交种Mo17×Suwan 5和Suwan 1×太3221的F1代的甲基化敏感扩增多态性(MASP)比率分别为39.1%和40.1%,均略低于其相应的双亲(39.8%和39.7%、44.6%和43.2%).2个杂交种的全甲基化(双链CmCGG)率分别为24.4%和23.3%,而其相应亲本Mo17、Suwan 5、Suwan 1和太3221分别为17.1%、24.4%、24.6%和21.6%.4个玉米亲本的MASP比率变化范围为39.7%～44.6%,平均为41.8%,全甲基化比率为17.1%～24.6%,平均为21.9%.杂交种与其相应亲本比较有4种类型的变化A型,F1与其亲本甲基化模式相同;B型,去甲基化;C型,超甲基化;D型,次甲基化.杂交种F1代DNA的甲基化模式与其双亲比较,发生了较大的改变与调整.F1代基因组的杂合性与基因组DNA甲基化模式的重新调整有关.     

盐胁迫下棉花基因组基于毛细管电泳的MSAP分析

以棉花杂交种中棉所29为材料,用甲基化敏感扩增多态性(methylation sensitive amplification polymorphism,MSAP) 分析法结合毛细管电泳检测技术进行甲基化鉴定,以初步探讨棉花耐盐的分子机理．应用24个引物组合,中棉所29在0.4%盐水胁迫及清水对照下,平均每引物组合检测甲基化位点数分别为69.2和56.7,差异达显著水平．盐胁迫下的DNA甲基化水平与清水对照下相比,52.6%位点表现出甲基化水平提高,即发生了超甲基化;19.7%位点甲基化水平降低,即表现为次甲基化;二者差异达极显著水平．研究结果表明,中棉所29盐胁迫后发生了广泛的DNA甲基化变化,包括超甲基化和次甲基化,以及其它甲基化类型的转变|发生超甲基化位点极显著地多于发生次甲基化位点．盐胁迫下的中棉所29与对照相比,DNA总体甲基化水平显著提高,暗示中棉所29有提高基因组甲基化水平以应对盐胁迫的潜在机制,棉花基因组整体甲基化水平的提高可能与棉花对盐胁迫的耐受性起重要作用．本研究中,甲基化序列的初步克隆及比对分析表明,盐胁迫前后多个ATP合成相关基因甲基化程度维持在同一水平,其表达不受甲基化影响,这也可能是中棉所29耐盐性较强,在一定时间盐处理后能维持正常生长的原因之一．     

铜胁迫对拟南芥幼苗生长和基因组DNA甲基化的影响

通过Murashige and Skoog(MS)培养实验,利用甲基化敏感扩增多态性(methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism,MSAP)技术研究Cu2+胁迫对拟南芥幼苗基因组DNA甲基化水平与甲基化模式的变化,同时比较其与幼苗鲜重、根系生长对Cu2+胁迫的敏感性。结果表明:0、0.25、1.0 mg獉L-1Cu2+处理15 d后,幼苗根长及鲜重变化差异不显著,而幼苗基因组MSAP率随Cu2+浓度的增加呈先增高后降低的趋势,分别为15.93%、16.28%和15.83%;高浓度Cu2+胁迫下(3.0 mg獉L-1),根长显著变短,鲜重显著降低,MSAP率为14.26%;Cu2+胁迫(0.25~3.0 mg獉L-1)下,拟南芥幼苗基因组超甲基化(M型)位点及去甲基化(D型)位点数均呈显著增加趋势,Msp I酶较Hpa II酶对胁迫反应更敏感。因此,拟南芥幼苗MSAP变化对低浓度Cu2+胁迫响应敏感,可作为Cu污染的早期诊断和生态风险评价。     

运用MSAP技术测定谷子基因组DNA胞嘧啶甲基化水平

DNA甲基化是真核生物一种重要的表观修饰形式。为了探讨谷子基因组DNA胞嘧啶甲基化的水平和模式,以谷子Setaria italica的两个品种朝谷58号和豫谷1号为实验材料,利用Eco RⅠ和HpaⅡ/MspⅠ双酶切建立适合于谷子基因组的甲基化敏感扩增多态性(MSAP)分析体系。结果表明,从100对MSAP选扩引物中,筛选出32对MSAP引物组合,在朝谷58号和豫谷1号中分别扩增产生1 615、1 482条清晰可辨且可重复的DNA条带,其中包括3种类型的甲基化条带,朝谷58号和豫谷1号的基因组中CCGG序列胞嘧啶甲基化水平分别为6.93%和8.77%。这种谷子不同品种间甲基化水平和分布位点的差异为从表观遗传学的角度培育新品种提供了初步的理论依据和参考。     

甘露醇对拟南芥基因组DNA甲基化的影响

以拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)为材料, 研究不同浓度甘露醇处理下拟南芥幼苗生长发育及其基因组DNA的甲基化水平和变化模式。结果表明, 用50、100、150和200 mmol·L^―1甘露醇处理拟南芥种子会对拟南芥幼苗的形态特征和生长态势产生影响; 甲基化敏感扩增多态性(methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism, MSAP)分析表明, 经50、100、150和200 mmol·L^―1甘露醇处理后, 基因组DNA甲基化比率分别为17.75%、21.15%、15.49%和46.10%。甘露醇处理使拟南芥发生基于DNA甲基化水平和模式改变的表观遗传变异。与对照相比, 在50、100、150和200 mmol·L^–1甘露醇处理下拟南芥幼苗基因组DNA的甲基化和去甲基化比率分别为5.78%、15.48%、10.71%、33.73%及10.98%、5.36%、8.33%、7.69%。由此推测, 5-甲基胞嘧啶百分含量随着甘露醇胁迫的增强而发生不同程度的变化。     

氮胁迫下高羊茅基因组DNA甲基化的MSAP分析

高羊茅是一种重要的禾本科牧草,尽管其具有良好的耐寒耐热性,但其生长发育过程受外界氮素浓度的直接影响。DNA甲基化作为一种表观遗传调控方式在植物抵御逆境胁迫中起到至关重要的作用。本研究以高羊茅为试验材料,经无氮胁迫15 d后,以未经氮胁迫为对照,对基因组DNA甲基化的变化进行甲基化敏感扩增多态性(MSAP)分析。结果表明:无氮处理15 d后,植株生长受到强烈地抑制,且叶片大面积发黄;MSAP分析选用12对选扩引物,共检测到725个基因位点,其中发生甲基化和去甲基化的位点占16.4%;对照组和氮胁迫组总甲基化水平分别是65.56%和65.47%,显示氮胁迫15 d高羊茅基因组DNA总的甲基化水平未发生显著变化。对15条标记带进行克隆并测序,成功获得14条不同变化类型的序列,这些序列与禾本科植物具有较高的同源性,推测氮胁迫下的高羊茅基因组甲基化可能发生在编码区域。综上,高羊茅对环境的适应性调节可能与氮胁迫诱导的甲基化的变化有关。     

叶锈菌胁迫下的小麦基因组MSAP分析

内源DNA甲基化是真核生物表观遗传调控的重要组成部分, 在真核生物的基因表达调控中具有重要的作用。生物胁迫为植物提供一种内在的表观遗传进化动力。研究生物胁迫下DNA甲基化的变异模式, 有助于全面理解DNA甲基化的表观调控生物学功能。小麦近等基因系TcLr19、TcLr41及其感病亲本Thatcher在苗期对叶锈菌生理小种THTT、TKTJ分别表现为小种特异性抗病反应和感病反应。文章利用甲基化敏感扩增多态性(Methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism, MSAP)技术分析了小麦的甲基化水平, 同时比较了苗期在生物胁迫前后基因组DNA胞嘧啶甲基化模式。用60对MSAP引物对接种前后的小麦DNA进行全基因组筛选, 没有直接分离得到接菌前后的甲基化模式的差异, 结果初步表明, 叶锈菌并没有诱导稳定且特异的植物基因组DNA胞嘧啶位点的甲基化模式变化, 但发现TcLr41及其感病亲本Thatcher之间存在表观遗传学差异。     

The influence of Al<Superscript>3+</Superscript> on DNA methylation and sequence changes in the triticale (× <Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticosecale</Emphasis> Wittmack) genome

Abiotic stressors such as drought, salinity, and exposure to heavy metals can induce epigenetic changes in plants. In this study, liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), methylation amplified fragment length polymorphisms (metAFLP), and methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphisms (MSAP) analysis was used to investigate the effects of aluminum (Al) stress on DNA methylation levels in the crop species triticale. RP-HPLC, but not metAFLP or MSAP, revealed significant differences in methylation between Al-tolerant (T) and non-tolerant (NT) triticale lines. The direction of methylation change was dependent on phenotype and organ. Al treatment increased the level of global DNA methylation in roots of T lines by approximately 0.6%, whereas demethylation of approximately 1.0% was observed in NT lines. DNA methylation in leaves was not affected by Al stress. The metAFLP and MSAP approaches identified DNA alterations induced by Al³⁺ treatment. The metAFLP technique revealed sequence changes in roots of all analyzed triticale lines and few mutations in leaves. MSAP showed that demethylation of CCGG sites reached approximately 3.97% and 3.75% for T and NT lines, respectively, and was more abundant than de novo methylation, which was observed only in two tolerant lines affected by Al stress. Three of the MSAP fragments showed similarity to genes involved in abiotic stress.     

土壤镉污染与作物

通过土壤镉污染对作物影响的盆栽模拟试验,以揭示重金属镉在土壤—植物系统中的转移、分布规律及其对植物生长、发育的影响。试验证明不同化合形态的镉施入土壤(砂壤质褐土,pH值8.2),水稻对镉吸收的多寡依次为CdCl2>CdSO4>CdO>CdS>CdCO3。白菜的镉吸收表现为CdSO4>CdCl2>CdO>CdCO3。土壤的不同镉浓度(施加CdCl2,以纯镉计)对作物影响的试验结果表明,可食部位达到食品污染标准(谷物含镉量0.4ppm、蔬菜0.2ppm为暂定标准)时的土壤镉污染临界值分别为：小麦、莴苣、白菜<1ppm,茄子、萝卜<2.5ppm,番茄、菜豆<20ppm。土壤因子的处理影响镉的活动性;降低土壤pH值,水稻的镉吸收增加。增施有机肥、ZnSO4、S、CaO、CaSO4可降低糙米含镉量13.4%一30%。白菜的镉吸收,由于增施有机肥、FeSO4、Fe2O3、CaO或S而降低菜叶含镉量28%一61%。以Cd,Zn比1:100或1:200施入土壤,叶内含镉量分别下降61%和76.4%,但白菜产量减少61%和76%。     

大花蕙兰子房授粉前后基因组DNA 胞嘧啶甲基化状态的MSAP 分析

应用甲基化敏感扩增多态性(Methylation sensitive amplified polymorphism, MSAP) 技术分析了大花蕙兰( Cymbidium hybridium) 授粉前后子房DNA 甲基化状态的变化(甲基化水平和甲基化差异模式) 。采用72 对引物进行选择性扩增, 共得到5892 条带, 其中748 条带为甲基化多态性带。结果显示DNA 甲基化在大花蕙兰子房发育过程中发生频繁, 从授粉前后子房的总扩增位点甲基化水平(14%和11. 4%) 和全甲基化率(9.5%和7.8% ) 来看, 授粉后都略低于未授粉子房, 表明子房在授粉后的发育过程中在某些位点发生了去甲基化。除甲基化水平有变化外, 大花蕙兰子房授粉前后的DNA 甲基化模式也存在较大差异, 共检测到14 种带型, 分为两大类( Ⅰ 和Ⅱ 型)。其中, 授粉前后DNA 甲基化状态保持不变的位点少, 只占25.6% , 归为Ⅰ型; 大部分检测位点( 占74.4% , 归为Ⅱ型) 的DNA 甲基化模式在授粉前后存在显著差异。上述结果表明, 大花蕙兰子房发育过程中以DNA 甲基化为代表的表观遗传调控起重要作用。本研究的开展将促进对与大花蕙兰子房发育相关的甲基化差异片段及受DNA 甲基化调控的关键基因的克隆, 进而为从表观遗传学这一新角度揭示大花蕙兰子房发育的分子机制奠定基础。     

重金属镉对拟南芥DNA甲基化的影响

将拟南芥种子点种于添加有不同浓度CdCl2的培养基中处理2周,移苗时CdCl2的胁迫即解除。低浓度CdCl2促进拟南芥种子的萌发。CdCl2为0．5mg·L^-1时萌发率最高（为97．21％）。随着CdCl2浓度的继续增加,种子萌发率即逐渐下降。幼苗期和抽薹期分别提取叶DNA,采用甲基敏感扩增多态性（MSAP）技术分析其基因组DNA甲基化的结果显示,总的来说,随着CdCl2浓度的增加,甲基化程度增高。     

Evaluation of Genetic and Epigenetic Modification in Rapeseed （Brassica napus） Induced by Salt Stress

Salinity is an important limiting environmental factor for rapeseed production worldwide. In this study, we assessed the extent and pattern of DNA damages caused by salt stress in rapeseed plants. Amplified fragment length polymorphism （AFLP） analysis revealed dose-related increases in sequence alterations in plantlets exposed to 10-1000 mmol/L sodium chloride. In addition, individual plantlets exposed to the same salt concentration showed different AFLP and selected region amplified polymorphism banding patterns. These observations suggested that DNA mutation in response to salt stress was random in the genome and the effect was dose-dependant. DNA methylation changes in response to salt stress were also evaluated by methylation sensitive amplified polymorphism （MSAP）. Three types of MSAP bands were recovered. Type Ⅰ bands were observed with both isoschizomers Hpa Ⅱ and Msp Ⅰ, while type Ⅱ and type Ⅲ bands were observed only with Hpa Ⅱ and Msp Ⅰ, respectively. Extensive changes in types of MSAP bands after NaCI treatments were observed, including appearance and disappearance of type Ⅰ, Ⅱ and Ⅲ bands, as well as exchanges between either type Ⅰand type Ⅱ or type Ⅰ and type Ⅲ bands. An increase of 0.2-17.6% cytosine methylated CCGG sites were detected in plantlets exposed to 10- 200 mmol/L salt compared to the control, and these changes included both de novo methylation and demethylation events. Nine methylation related fragments were also recovered and sequenced, and one sharing a high sequence homology with the ethylene responsive element binding factor was identified. These results demonstrated clear DNA genetic and epigenetic alterations in planUets as a response to salt stress, and these changes may suggest a mechanism for plants adaptation under salt stress.     

组织培养导致的草莓DNA甲基化变异

以草莓品种‘丰香’和‘全明星’为材料,用甲基化敏感扩增多态性（MSAP）技术研究组织培养对草莓DNA甲基化的影响。结果表明,与普通苗相比,组织培养导致草莓试管苗的DNA甲基化水平下降,甲基化模式的变异以去甲基化为主。组织培养导致的DNA甲基化变异不稳定,在田间无性繁殖过程中,试管苗的无性繁殖后代DNA甲基化水平逐渐升高,仅部分变异的甲基化模式能够在试管苗的无性繁殖后代中稳定传递。两个品种之间,纽织培养对DNA甲基化变异程度的影响不同。     

Specific hypomethylation of DNA is induced by heavy metals in white clover and industrial hemp

The present study was to assess the effect of heavy metal stress on the DNA methylation of a metal-sensitive plant, Trifolium repens L. and of a metal-tolerant plant, Cannabis sativa L. The changes in the level of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in the root DNA of plants grown on soils contaminated with different concentrations of Ni²⁺, Cd²⁺ and Cr⁶⁺ compared with that of untreated plants, were determined by immunolabelling with a monoclonal antibody, using the Slot-Blot technique. Results showed that DNA of hemp control plants was about three times more methylated than clover DNA, for the same amount of root DNA. Heavy metal treatments induced a global dose-dependent decrease of 5mC content, both in hemp and clover, ranging from 20 to 40%. Changes in methylation pattern of 5'-CCGG-3' containing sequences were investigated by methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism (MSAP) technique. Control plants of the same species showed a very similar pattern, suggesting that, in normal condition, methylation involves precise sites. Heavy metals induced DNA methylation changes mainly related to hypomethylation events. These variations were not randomly directed but involved specific DNA sequences, since the detected polymorphisms were the same in all the plants analysed for each treatment.     

Induction of chromosomal aberrations in cultured Chinese hamster cells by short-term treatment with cadmium chloride

Inducibility of chromosomal aberrations and cytotoxicity in cultured Chinese hamster cells by cadmium chloride (CdCl2) was investigated under 3 different treatment conditions: (i) 2-h treatment in MEM medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (MEM + 10% FBS) or (ii) in HEPES-buffered Hanks' solution (HEPES-Hanks), and (iii) continuous treatment for 24 h in MEM + 10% FBS. Two-h treatment with CdCl2 in HEPES-Hanks or continuous treatment for 24 h in MEM + 10% FBS was respectively 2 or 3 times more cytotoxic than 2-h treatment with the metal in MEM + 10% FBS. Continuous treatment for 24 h with a CdCl2 concentration in excess of 5 X 10(-6) M was too toxic to the cells to allow chromosomal analysis, and moreover, only a slight increase in incidence of chromosomal aberrations was observed at a concentration of 5 X 10(-6) M CdCl2. In contrast, a marked and concentration-dependent increase in incidence of chromosomal aberrations was observed after post-treatment culture for 22 h follows 2-h treatment with 1 X 10(-6) M to 5 X 10(-5) M of CdCl2 in both MEM + 10% FBS and HEPES-Hanks. Two-h treatment with cadmium in HEPES-Hanks was approximately 3 times more potent for the induction of chromosomal aberrations than that in MEM + 10% FBS. Types of aberrations induced by CdCl2 mainly consisted of chromatid gaps and breaks, although a few exchanges, dicentrics and fragmentations were observed at high concentrations of cadmium. Increase in incidence of tetraploidy was also observed with a concentration dependency after 2-h treatment with CdCl2. Potency of CdCl2 to induce chromosomal aberrations after 2-h exposure was comparable to that of benzo[a]pyrene activated with S9 at equitoxic concentrations. Two-h treatment with cadmium markedly inhibited incorporation of [3H]thymidine, even at concentrations at which incorporation of [3H]uridine or [3H]leucine was less inhibited. However, the inhibition of [3H]thymidine incorporation by cadmium was reversible and the incorporation restored to the control level during 2-6 h of post-treatment incubation. These findings suggest that restoration of DNA synthesis after cadmium exposure is required for the efficient detection of chromosomal aberrations induced by the metal.     

水稻愈伤组织形成过程中甲基化对OsMAPK2的表达调控

利用MSAP方法从经过5-azaC处理和未处理的水稻愈伤组织中获得了1个存在甲基化位点的片段。测序后比对分析表明,该片段为水稻MAPK家族OsMAPK2基因的5′端区域。该基因5′端区域有一个CpG岛,与拟南芥AtMAPK12基因序列高度相似。利用实时定量PCR和HpaII-McrBC PCR分析了在水稻芽段受生长素刺激后形成愈伤组织过程中OsMAPK2基因的表达与甲基化的关系。结果表明:该基因表达量与基因5′端甲基化水平相对应,甲基化调控基因的表达。在愈伤组织形成过程中2.0mg/L的2,4-D诱导该基因5′端区域去甲基化,使基因表达,而长时间(100h)的诱导后或导致重新甲基化,基因表达量降低;低浓度的2,4-D(0.5和1.0mg/L)也可以产生同样的趋势,但是基因的表达量低于2.0mg/L的2,4-D的诱导;高浓度的2,4-D(5.0mg/L)可以在较短的时间内完成对基因的诱导和抑制。     

Heavy de novo methylation at symmetrical and non-symmetrical sites is a hallmark of RNA-directed DNA methylation

Previous analysis of potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) RNA-infected tobacco plants has suggested that an RNA-DNA interaction could trigger de novo methylation of PSTVd transgene sequences. Using the genomic sequencing technique, the methylation pattern associated with the RNA-directed DNA methylation process has been characterized. Three different PSTVd transgene constructs all showed a similar pattern of methylation. Most of the cytosines at symmetrical as well as non-symmetrical positions appeared to be methylated in both DNA strands of the viroid sequences. Heavy methylation was mostly restricted to the viroid cDNA sequences. Flanking DNA regions immediately adjacent to the viroid cDNA displayed a lower but significant level of cytosine methylation. The observation that the heavy methylation was essentially co-extensive with the length of the PSTVd cDNA sequences provided evidence that a direct RNA-DNA interaction can act as a strong and highly specific signal for de novo DNA methylation. These data also confirmed that de novo methylation was not limited to canonical CpG and CpNpG sites, but can also involve all the cytosine residues located in the genomic region where the RNA-DNA interaction takes place.