Long-term ecological research on Korean forest ecosystems: the current status and challenges

The present study aims to monitor the long-term changes in forest structure, productivity, nutrient cycling, and to accumulate ecological information on forest ecosystem in Korea. There are six long-term ecological research sites and seven flux measurement sites in Korea. The Gwangneung experimental forest (GEF) located in the central cool-temperate forest sub zone is known as a model site where many interdisciplinary researches have been ongoing actively since mid-1990s over all other Korea long-term ecological research sites (KLTER). Collected data and information through monitoring and investigation of changes in forest ecosystem have been stored in a database for analyses. The relative importance of tree species (%) of GEF was in the order Quercus serrata (20)?=?Euonymus oxyphyllus (20)?>?Carpinus laxiflora (12). The total biomass and basal area were 249.53 t ha^?1 and 26.66 m² ha^?1, respectively. There were 136 taxa with 49 families, with 97 genera, 11 varieties, 3 forma, and 1 subspecies in 1 ha permanent plot. The increase in temperature has been estimated to have negative effects on tree growth. The litter decomposition rate was in the order Cornus controversa?<?C. cordata?<?C. laxiflora?<?Q. serrata. The average litterfall and soil respiration were 5803 kg ha^?1 and 8600 kg C ha^?1, respectively. Further, the GEF, a KLTER site tended to be almost carbon neutral with an annual growth average of 51,000?±?78,000 kg ha^?1. The data from six LTER sites are digitalized and classified to build data catalogs on the ecological information system. The information on stand dynamics and materials and energy budget in the forest ecosystem is utilized for impact assessment and the study of adaptation strategy for forest ecosystem to climate change.     

Fumonisins: current research trends in developmental toxicology

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is a mycotoxin produced byFusarium verticillioides that is found in maize and maize-based foods. Reproductive studies in CD1 mice, rats and rabbits initially found no evidence that fumonisins are teratogenic. However, more recent findings suggest that they might increase the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in populations consuming large amounts of fumonisin-contaminated corn. When ≥15 mg/kg body weight fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) was given to pregnant LM/Bc mice by intraperitoneal (ip) injection, all litters were positive for NTDs. To determine if NTD induction is unique to the inbred LM/Bc mouse strain, NTD induction in LM/Bc and CD1 mice was compared: (a) in a study in whichF. verticillioides culture material providing ≤150 ppm FB₁ was fed to female mice before and during gestation, and (b) in a study in which FB₁ was given by ip injection to CD1 dams on gestation days 7 and 8, the critical time for NTD development. In the feeding study, one of five LM/Bc litters from dams fed the 150 ppm FB₁ diet was positive for NTDs whereas no NTDs were found in the CD1 litters. In the ip injection study, 40% of the litters at the highest dose tested, 45 mg/kg body weight, were positive for NTDs and one of nine low-dose (15 mg/kg body weight) litters was also positive. Thus, FB₁ induced NTDs in both LM/Bc and CD1 mice although the latter strain appears less sensitive. Comparative investigations using these strains will be useful for elucidating the mechanisms underlying fumonisin-induced NTDs in mice and determining the suitability of mouse models for studying the relationships between fumonisins and NTDs in humans.     

Ecological risks in anthropogenic disturbance of nitrogen cycles in natural terrestrial ecosystems

Anthropogenic addition of reactive nitrogen (Nr) to the biosphere is increasing globally and some terrestrial ecosystems are suffering from a state of excess Nr for biological nitrogen (N) demand, termed N saturation. Here, we review the ecological risks in relation to N saturation and prospective responses to N saturation. Excess Nr increases the risks of local extinction of rare plant species, encouragement of exotic plant species, disturbance of nutrient balance in plant organs, and increase of herbivory in plant communities. On the ecosystem scale, excess bioavailable N induces forest decline, disturbance of nutrient cycling within ecosystems, depending on vegetation, soil, land-use, and N-loading history. These Nr risks will increase in the Asian region, where impacts of Nr in natural terrestrial ecosystems have been scarcely studied. Whether much of the terrestrial ecosystems on a global level are in the sate of N saturation or not is still controversial, but the potential risks of excess Nr seem to be increasing. The fundamental ways to mitigate Nr risks are to reduce Nr production, prevent Nr translocation, and promote conversion of Nr to N₂. Temporal, but promising actions against ecological N risks may include management of forests and riparian zones, and carbon addition in grassland.     

The rhythmic structure of the human EEG: the current state and trends of the research

During the past decade, spectral analysis has become indispensable instrument for different kinds of EEG processing. With the development of dedicated computer system, investigation of shifts in human EEG rhythm under various conditions has improved considerably. However, it is difficult to make general conclusions from this line of research, since a large number of studies are carried out using the ambiguous experimental approaches and different methods. Present paper aims to evaluate a modern state of the art in the field of human EEG rhythmical structure investigation. The results from recent relevant articles are briefly reviewed according to the universal scheme (EEG rhythm--experimental condition--observed effect). Due to such presentation, the obtained results have been summarized and some tendencies of modern investigations have been revealed. The extension of studied frequency range of rhythmical EEG components to both high (> 35 Hz) and low (< 1 Hz) frequencies, the shift to a more detailed spectral structure analysis simultaneously with ignoring the fixed boundaries of traditional EEG rhythms, the growing attempts to reveal EEG rhythmical structure correlates of cognitive activity, and a wide utilization of dynamic approaches for the analysis of brain electrical activity are discussed in some detail. The observed data are indicate of high functional significance and perspectives of human EEG rhythmical structure investigation.     

Anthropogenic EMF effects on the condition and function of natural ecosystems

A review of Russian and foreign studies of EMF effects on living environment was made. Vast range of EMF frequencies and intensities affect on functions and condition of ecosystems. Even non-thermal EMF levels could cause reversible changes in physiological process regulation. Some changes were observed in animal behavior such as motive activity, spatial orientation, reduction of ability to form a conditioned response. Some animal species (some insects, birds, reptiles) use electromagnetic fields for spatial orientation during migration. Biological communities are very sensitive to EMF effects and could become the biological indicators of electromagnetic pollution.     

The current status of ethnobiological research in Latin America: gaps and perspectives

Background

Recent reviews have demonstrated an increase in the number of papers on ethnobiology in Latin America. Among factors that have influenced this increase are the biological and cultural diversity of these countries and the general scientific situation in some countries. This study aims to assess the panorama of ethnobiological research in Latin America by analyzing its evolution, trends, and future prospects.

Methods

To conduct this study, we searched for papers in the Scopus (http://www.scopus.com) and Web of Science (http://www.isiknowledge.com) databases. The search was performed using combinations of keywords and the name of each Latin American country. The following countries were included in this study: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela, and Uruguay.

Results and conclusions

According to our inclusion criteria, 679 ethnobiological studies conducted in Latin America were found for the period between 1963 and 2012. Of these studies, 289 (41%) were conducted in Brazil, 153 in Mexico (22%), 61 in Peru (9%), 58 in Argentina (8%), 45 in Bolivia (6%), and 97 (14%) in other Latin American countries. The increased number of publications related to this area of knowledge in recent years demonstrates the remarkable growth of ethnobiology as a science. Ethnobiological research may be stimulated by an increase in the number of scientific events and journals for study dissemination and by the creation of undergraduate courses and graduate programs to train ethnoscientists who will produce high-quality studies, especially in certain countries.

     

Arboreal tropical forest vertebrates: current knowledge and research trends

We review the ecology and specialized methods required for studying arboreal mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, and use faunal checklists from 12 tropical wet forest sites and an analysis of all articles published during the past ten years in 14 major journals to assess current knowledge and general research trends for these groups. The percentage of arboreal vertebrates was remarkably similar at the different sites (76.2 ± 3.9%). Birds were the most arboreal group and amphibians and reptiles the least. The review of journals showed that primates were overwhelmingly the most studied group (336 papers), followed by bats (105), passeriform birds (73) and rodents (55). Judging by their portion of the arboreal vertebrate community and the number of papers surveyed, birds and amphibians and reptiles are vastly understudied compared to mammals, but this is largely due to the great number of primate studies. The number of publications on arboreal vertebrates has remained relatively stable over the last 10 years for all taxa except primates, which have seen a growth in publications. Canopy vertebrates from Brazil had by far the most publications (120), followed by Madagascar (61), Costa Rica (55) and Indonesia (42). We conclude by highlighting the priorities we see for future studies on tropical canopy vertebrates.     

Management of the natural ecosystems of the Cape Peninsula: current status and future prospects

The Cape Peninsula is an area of outstanding natural beauty and exceptional biodiversity, worthy of proclamation as a World Heritage Site. The area is dominated by fynbos vegetation, usually managed by means of prescribed burning, together with various programmes aimed at the control of invasive alien plant species. Effective management of the Peninsula is bedevilled by the fact that the area is controlled by no less than 14 different public bodies, resulting in fragmentation of effort and the lack of a standardized approach to management. Historically, many official and unofficial investigations have called for this problem to be resolved, without success. The lack of coherent, focused, and well funded fire and alien weed control management plans for the entire Peninsula is a serious deficiency. Despite this, considerable progress has been made towards the establishment of a database for the Peninsula, and the development of decision support systems that can utilize this database for rational management. Adoption of such a system would provide a powerful uniting tramework that would standardize and influence the management approaches adopted by the various controlling authorities.     

Bacterial zoonoses with natural focality: current trends in epidemic manifestation

Current trends in epidemic manifestation of some bacterial zoonoses with natural focality and their role in human infectious pathology have been reviewed and analyzed. Update information on the etiological agents of "emerging" and "re-emerging" infections--Astrakhan spotted fever, bartonellosis, ixodes tick-borne borrelioses, monocytic erhrlichiosis and canine brucellosis, recently isolated on the territory of Russia, is presented. The main factors at play in the process of urbanization of bacterial zoonoses are discussed.     

A general assessment of the conservation status and decline trends of Mexican amphibians

We present a review on the conservation status and population trends of the 372 amphibian species currently recognized for Mexico. We based our analyses on the information gathered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature-the Global Amphibian Assessment (IUCN-GAA) as well as on available literature about imminent or potential threats to these organisms in Mexico. This country has the fifth largest amphibian fauna in the world and almost 58% of the species that inhabit this country are considered as threatened. We highlight the proportion of species per order, family, and genus that are currently under severe risk in Mexico. In addition, we prepared a detailed list of the main factors that are threatening amphibians in this country. Evidence is provided that the six main mechanisms that are globally leading amphibians to extinction (alien species, over-exploitation, land use change, global changes, pollution, and infectious diseases) are indeed currently operating in Mexico. We discuss the relative importance of each of these causes. We also highlight the paucity of quantitative studies that support the current conservation status of Mexican amphibian species.     

An experimental assessment of the potential effects of human disturbance on Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix in the North Pennines, England

In the United Kingdom, Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix have declined in range and abundance during the 20th century. In England at present, birds are largely found only on the margins of managed grouse moors in the north, where more than 80% of birds are confined to the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Black Grouse is one of a group of species potentially at risk from increased human recreational disturbance owing to their threatened status and their use of habitats to which a statutory right of human recreational access has recently been granted. To assess the likely impact of increased disturbance to Black Grouse, 77 were caught and radiotagged between 2002 and 2004, and each was randomly assigned to one of three experimental disturbance categories: no disturbance (low), fortnightly disturbance (moderate) or twice weekly disturbance (high). Birds that were disturbed more regularly flushed at greater distances, especially in spring and winter when birds exposed to high disturbance flushed at 32% greater distances than those in moderate disturbance treatments. There were no differences in fecundity (clutch size, hatching success, breeding success) or survival between disturbance treatments. Winter survival was 78% and summer survival 92%. There was no age-related difference in survival. The disturbance regimes imposed had no discernible impact upon Black Grouse population dynamics. However, in the absence of appropriate data to indicate likely changes in patterns and levels of human recreation resulting from open access, we cannot be sure whether the levels we applied will be representative in the future. Should actual disturbance levels be higher than those we used in this study, we list visitor management options that may help reduce any conflict that arises.     

Measuring benefits of protected area management: trends across realms and research gaps for freshwater systems

Protected areas remain a cornerstone for global conservation. However, their effectiveness at halting biodiversity decline is not fully understood. Studies of protected area benefits have largely focused on measuring their impact on halting deforestation and have neglected to measure the impacts of protected areas on other threats. Evaluations that measure the impact of protected area management require more complex evaluation designs and datasets. This is the case across realms (terrestrial, freshwater, marine), but measuring the impact of protected area management in freshwater systems may be even more difficult owing to the high level of connectivity and potential for threat propagation within systems (e.g. downstream flow of pollution). We review the potential barriers to conducting impact evaluation for protected area management in freshwater systems. We contrast the barriers identified for freshwater systems to terrestrial systems and discuss potential measurable outcomes and confounders associated with protected area management across the two realms. We identify key research gaps in conducting impact evaluation in freshwater systems that relate to three of their major characteristics: variability, connectivity and time lags in outcomes. Lastly, we use Kakadu National Park world heritage area, the largest national park in Australia, as a case study to illustrate the challenges of measuring impacts of protected area management programmes for environmental outcomes in freshwater systems.     

Scar assessment tools: implications for current research

Scarring is considered a major medical problem that leads to cosmetic and functional sequelae. Scar tissue is clinically distinguished from normal skin by an aberrant color, rough surface texture, increased thickness (hypertrophy), occurrence of contraction, and firmness. Marked histologic differences are the change in dermal architecture and the presence of cells such as the myofibroblast. Many assessment tools are available for analysis of pathologic conditions of the skin; however, there is no general agreement as to the most appropriate tools for evaluation of scar tissue. This review critically discusses currently available objective measurement tools, subjective assessment tools, and potential devices that may be available in the future for scar assessment.     

Sources of reactive nitrogen affecting ecosystems in Latin America and the Caribbean: current trends and future perspectives

While the amount of reactive nitrogen circulating at the global level has increased markedly in the last century, the effects of this increase are largely seen at the regional level due to interacting ecological and socio-economic factors. In contrast with most other regions of the world, Latin America and the Caribbean (LA-Ca) stand out due to the fact that the major input of reactive nitrogen (Nr) still occurs naturally via biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in natural ecosystems as opposed to anthropogenic inputs of synthetic fertilizer, fossil fuel combustion and cropping with leguminous species. Largely due to economic reasons, the consumption of fertilizer N in the LA-Ca region is still low in comparison with the average consumption of the world. However, the fertilizer N consumption is increasing at a much faster rate than that in developed regions of the world, like USA and Canada. The Nr production through BNF in cultivated plants that fix nitrogen (C-BNF) is 5 times lower than that occurring naturally in Latin America, but is still equivalent to 16% of the world C-BNF. The cultivation of nitrogen-fixing crop species in the LA-Ca region is also increasing, almost entirely due to the expansion of soybean fields in the central and northern regions of Brazil and the Pampa region of Argentina. Other anthropogenic activities in the region that contribute to an increase in the circulation of reactive nitrogen include the impact of biomass burning and urbanization. In the last decade, an average of 47,000 km² per year of forests was burned in the LA-Ca region. The environmental impact of urban centers in the LA-Ca region has become very important, since an intense urbanization process is occurring in this region, at an intensity that far exceeds urban development in the northern hemisphere. The consequences of increased urbanization include increased emissions of NO _x to the atmosphere due to the fossil fuel combustion, and the lack of sewage treatment facilities in most cities of the LA-Ca result in a large volume of untreated sewage discharged into surface waters, creating serious environmental problems. The combination of rapid urbanization and agricultural intensification in this region suggest that concern is warranted for the potential for increase in the circulation of reactive nitrogen in the very near future. At the same time, the opportunity still exists to mitigate some of the consequences of human impact on the nitrogen cycle in a region that still maintains a large fraction of its natural ecosystems intact.