The role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 in the mammalian testis and their involvement in testicular torsion and autoimmune orchitis

This review will focus the roles of TNF-alpha, IL-1 alpha, and IL-1 beta in the mammalian testis and in two testicular pathologies, testicular torsion and orchitis. TNF alpha in the testis is produced by round spermatids, pachytene spermatocytes, and testicular macrophages. The type 1 TNF receptor has been found on Sertoli and Leydig cells and numerous studies suggest a paracrine mode of action for TNF alpha in the normal testis. IL-1 alpha has been reported to be produced by Sertoli cells, testicular macrophages, and possibly postmeiotic germ cells. IL-1 receptors have been reported on Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, testicular macrophages, and germ cells suggesting both autocrine and paracrine functions. While these proinflammatory cytokines have important roles in normal testicular homeostasis, an elevation of their expression can lead to testicular dysfunctions. Testicular torsion is a clinical pathology with results in testicular ischemia and surgical intervention is often required for reperfusion. A pivotal role for IL-1beta in the pathology of testicular torsion has been recently described whereby an increase in IL-1beta production after reperfusion of the testis is correlated with the activation of the stress-related kinase, c-jun N-terminal kinase, and ultimately resulting in neutrophil recruitment to the testis and germ cell apoptosis. In autoimmune orchitis, on the other hand, TNF alpha produced by T-lymphocytes and macrophages of the testis has been implicated in the development and progression of the disease. Thus, both proinflammatory cytokines, TNF alpha and IL-1, have significant roles in normal testicular functions as well as in certain testicular pathologies.     

Dax1 regulates testis cord organization during gonadal differentiation

Mutations of the DAX1 nuclear receptor gene cause adrenal hypoplasia congenita, an X-linked disorder characterized by adrenal insufficiency and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Targeted deletion of Dax1 in mice also reveals primary testicular dysgenesis, which is manifest by obstruction of the rete testis by Sertoli cells and hyperplastic Leydig cells, leading to seminiferous tubule dilation and degeneration of germ cells. Because Dax1 is expressed early in gonadal development, and because Sertoli and Leydig cells are located ectopically in the adult, we hypothesized that these testis abnormalities are the result of an early defect in testis development. In Dax1(-/Y) males, the gonad develops normally until 12.5 dpc. However, by 13.5 dpc, the testis cords are disorganized and incompletely formed in Dax1-deficient mice. The number of germ and Sertoli cells is unchanged, and the expression of Sertoli-specific markers appears to be normal. However, the number of peritubular myoid cells, which normally surround the testis cords, is reduced. BrdU labeling of peritubular myoid cells is low, consistent with decreased proliferation. The basal lamina produced by peritubular myoid and Sertoli cells is disrupted, leading to open and incompletely formed testis cords. Leydig cells, which normally reside in the peritubular space and extend from the coelomic surface to the dorsal surface of the gonad, are restricted to the coelomic surface of Dax1-deficient testis. We conclude that Dax1 plays a crucial role in testis differentiation by regulating the development of peritubular myoid cells and the formation of intact testis cords. The developmental abnormalities in the Dax1-deficient testis lay the foundation for gonadal dysgenesis and infertility in adult mice and, potentially in humans with DAX1 mutations.     

Leydig cell-specific expression of DAX1 improves fertility of the Dax1-deficient mouse

Dax1 is an orphan nuclear receptor expressed in both Leydig and Sertoli cells of the testis. Mutation of DAX1 in humans causes adrenal failure and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Targeted mutagenesis of Dax1 in mice reveals a primary gonadal defect characterized by overexpression of aromatase and cellular obstruction of the seminiferous tubules and efferent ductules, leading to germ cell death and infertility. Transgenic expression of DAX1 under the control of the müllerian-inhibiting substance promoter, which is selectively expressed in Sertoli cells, improves fertility but does not fully correct the histological abnormalities in the testes of Dax1 knockout (Dax1KO) mice. We therefore hypothesized that Dax1 may also play a crucial role in other somatic cells of the testis, namely the Leydig cells. A 2.1-kilobase fragment of the murine LH receptor 5'-promoter (LHR-DAX1) was used to generate transgenic mice that selectively express DAX1 in Leydig cells. Expression of the LHR-DAX1 transgene caused no observable phenotype in wild-type mice but improved fertility when expressed in Dax1KO males (rescue [RS]). Although testicular size was not increased in LHR-DAX1 RS animals, aromatase expression was restored to normal levels, and sperm production was increased. Testicular pathology was only slightly improved in RS mice compared to Dax1KO animals. Taken together with the result of previous studies of DAX1 expression in Sertoli cells, we conclude that the testis phenotype of Dax1KO mice reflects the combined effects of Dax1 deficiency in both Sertoli and Leydig cells.     

Structural characterization of the chicken SF-1/Ad4BP gene

SF-1/Ad4BP was identified as a master regulator controlling steroidogenic P-450 genes and belongs to the steroid hormone receptor superfamily. It is expressed in the adrenal cortex, gonads, and pituitary gonadotroph. Targeted disruption of the mouse SF-1/Ad4BP gene showed that it plays a critical role in the development of the steroidogenic tissues and pituitary gonadotroph. We have recently cloned the chicken SF-1/Ad4BP cDNA and have now cloned the chicken SF-1/Ad4BP gene and analyzed its promoter activity. This gene consists of seven exons as well as mammalian counterparts and spans about 15 kb. In mice, the gene encodes another protein, ELP, but we could not find the open reading frame of ELP in the chicken SF-1/Ad4BP gene. The promoter of this gene included five putative cis elements (E, CCAAT, GC and TATA boxes and a GA-rich element), although no TATA box has been found in mammalian counterparts. The E and CCAAT boxes moderately affected promoter activity and the GA-rich element and TATA box were essential for the expression of the chicken SF-1/Ad4BP gene.     

Over expression of interleukin-1alpha,interleukin-1beta and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in testicular tissues from sexually immature mice as compared to adult mice

The levels of IL-1alpha, IL-1beta and IL-1Ra were higher in homogenates of testicular tissue from sexually immature than those from mature mice. Immunohistochemical staining of testicular tissues from sexually immature and adult mice show that differentiated germ cells express higher levels of IL-1alpha compared to Sertoli cells and Leydig cells/interstitial cells. Peritubular cells of sexually immature and adult mice did not express IL-1alpha. Testicular tissue cells of adult mice showed high levels of expression of IL-1beta, mainly in the cytoplasm and nucleus of the spermatogonia and in spermatocytes. Sertoli cells and Leydig/interstitial cells were also highly stained for IL-1beta. However, peritubular cells did not express IL-1beta. On the other hand, testicular tissue cells from sexually immature mice, showed high levels of IL-1beta, mainly in spermatocytes. Spermatogonia showed low levels of IL-1beta expression. Also, high levels of IL-1beta expression were detected in Leydig/interstitial cells. Peritubular cells clearly showed IL-1beta expression. Testicular tissue cells from adult mice, showed IL-1Ra expression in spermatogonia, Sertoli and Leydig/interstitial cells. IL-1Ra expression was clearly present in the Golgi apparatus of spermatogonia and Sertoli cells. However, peritubular cells did not show IL-1Ra expression. Testicular tissue cells from sexually immature mice, also showed high levels of IL-1Ra expression mainly in the cytoplasm and nucleus of the spermatogonia and Sertoli cells. In addition, Leydig/interstitial cells and peritubular cells also expressed IL-1Ra. Our results demonstrate, for the first time, the expression of IL-1beta in germ and Sertoli cells, and IL-1Ra in Leydig/interstitial cells of testicular tissues from adult and sexually immature mice, under in vivo conditions. In addition, the relative elevated levels of the IL-1 system in the testis of immature mice compared to mature mice may indicate its involvement in the spermatogenesis.     

Differential expression of Prx I and II in mouse testis and their up-regulation by radiation

Testis is one of the most sensitive organs to ionizing radiation. The present study was designed to unravel the possible role of antioxidant proteins, peroxiredoxin I and II (Prx I and II) in the testis. Our results show that Prx I and II are constitutively expressed in the testis and their expression levels are decreased to some extent as the testis develops. Interestingly, immunohistochemical analysis revealed a preferential expression of Prx I and II in Leydig and Sertoli cells, respectively. Neither Prx I nor Prx II expression was obvious in the testicular germ cells including spermatogonia and spermatocytes. Ionizing radiation exerted oxidative stress on the testis and induced apoptosis primarily in the germ cells. When the irradiated testis was examined, the Prx system was found to be transiently up-regulated. Taken together, we suggest that the relative radiation-resistance of Leydig and Sertoli cells could be attributed in part to the antioxidant function of the Prx system in these cells.