Self-assemblage and quorum in the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Oligochaete, Lumbricidae)

Despite their ubiquity and ecological significance in temperate ecosystems, the behavioural ecology of earthworms is not well described. This study examines the mechanisms that govern aggregation behaviour specially the tendency of individuals to leave or join groups in the compost earthworm Eisenia fetida, a species with considerable economic importance, especially in waste management applications. Through behavioural assays combined with mathematical modelling, we provide the first evidence of self-assembled social structures in earthworms and describe key mechanisms involved in cluster formation. We found that the probability of an individual joining a group increased with group size, while the probability of leaving decreased. Moreover, attraction to groups located at a distance was observed, suggesting a role for volatile cues in cluster formation. The size of earthworm clusters appears to be a key factor determining the stability of the group. These findings enhance our understanding of intra-specific interactions in earthworms and have potential implications for extraction and collection of earthworms in vermicomposting processes.     

Tracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian Bipalium adventitium (Tricladida, Platyhelminthes)

The potential ecological impact of exotic terrestrial planarians will be determined in part by their sensory abilities and predatory behavior. It has been suggested that these flatworms may only encounter their earthworm prey by chance, hence restricting the breadth of species they will feed upon and the number of microhabitats in which predator-prey interactions occur. We hypothesized that those flatworms that have already successfully invaded North America (genus Bipalium) actually detect and follow chemical trails of earthworms and possess the behavioral repertoire needed to feed on the prey in a range of microhabitats. We examined: (1) the tendency of Bipalium adventitium to follow chemical trails left by injured and un-injured earthworms; (2) the behavioral repertoire and predatory success of B. adventitium feeding on three earthworm species in subterranean tunnels; and (3) the response of flatworms to the reportedly defensive secretions of the earthworm Eisenia fetida in tunnels. B. adventitium detected and followed trails of earthworm mucus and secretions left by injured and un-injured earthworms. Flatworms followed trails on a range of substrates and pursued and captured three species of earthworms in subterranean tunnels, including individuals many times their mass. Although most behavior exhibited during underground attacks was similar to that reported for surface encounters, the flatworms also behaved in ways that blocked earthworm escape from tunnels. The flatworms were less successful at preying on E. fetida than on Lumbricus rubellus and Lumbricus terrestris in underground tunnels and showed some aversion to the secretions from E. fetida.     

蚯蚓生物标记物在土壤生态风险评价中的应用

蚯蚓在土壤中行使了很多重要的生态功能,蚯蚓生物标记物常用作土壤污染风险评价研究。这篇综述的目的是探讨当前蚯蚓生物标记物研究是否可以应用到实际的土壤污染风险评价。1)讨论了蚯蚓生物标记物在土壤污染风险评价体系中的重要性,认为它是化学分析方法的有益补充,可以提供更为全面和客观的土壤污染信息;2)综述了相关研究中所使用的蚯蚓类型,土壤类型和生物标记物类型,及其它试验设计要素和最后结果的变异,认为目前蚯蚓生物标记物研究以实验室基础研究为主,筛选出了大量的生物标记物,一定程度上揭示了生物标记物的对各类典型污染物及其组合的应答机制;同时也认为,未来的蚯蚓生物标记物研究应该重点探讨将其应用到实际的土壤污染风险评价中的可行性及如何应用;3)目前不同研究之间从试验设计到结果都具有很大的变异,难以通过综合比较获得完全可靠的具有实践意义的结论和成果,因此,有必要通过建立标准化的蚯蚓生物标记物研究方法,推动生物标记物的研究工作;4)提出了蚯蚓生物标记物研究方法标准化的具体建议,推荐了蚯蚓生物标记物走向实际应用所需要解决的问题。     

Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis for analysing the gut microflora of Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister under different feeding conditions

The earthworm, Lumbricus rubellus, plays an essential role in soil ecosystems as it affects organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling. By ingesting a mixture of organic and mineral material, a variety of bacteria and fungi are carried to the intestinal tract of the earthworm. To get a better understanding of the interactions between L. rubellus and the microorganisms ingested, this study tried to reveal if the diet affects the composition of the gut microflora of L. rubellus or if its intestinal tract hosts an indigenous, species-specific microbiota. A feeding experiment with L. rubellus was set up; individuals were collected in the field, transferred to a climate chamber and fed with food sources of different quality (dwarf shrub litter, grass litter or horse dung) for six weeks. DNA was extracted from the guts of the earthworms, as well as from the food sources and the surrounding soil, and further analysed by a molecular fingerprinting method, PCR-DGGE (Polymerase Chain Reaction -- Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis). We were able to demonstrate that the gut microbiota was strongly influenced by the food source ingested and was considerably different to that of the surrounding soil. Sequencing of dominant bands of the bacterial DGGE fingerprints revealed a strong occurrence of y-Proteobacteria in all gut samples, independent of the food source. A specific microflora in the intestinal tract of L. rubellus, robust against diet changes, could not be found.     

Comparative efficacy of three epigeic earthworms under different deciduous forest litters decomposition

An experiment was conducted during 1998-1999, in a deciduous forest located in the semi-arid tropics of central India, to evaluate the suitability of different forest litters as food material for the tropical epigeic earthworms i.e. Eisenia fetida (Savigny), Perionyx excavatus (Perrier) and Dicogaster bolaui (michaelsen). The aim was to examine the influence of these earthworms on the decomposition processes of three types of forest litters i.e. Tectona grandis (teak), Madhuca indica (mahua) and Butea monosperma (palas), on the maintenance of quality in a vermicomposting system, and to assess the effect of applications of in situ prepared vermicomposts on the growth of forest trees. The results indicated that T. grandis litter was the most suitable food material for the earthworms possibly because it contained high reserves of mineral nutrients. Comparisons of the survival and reproduction rates of the three epigeic earthworm species indicated that a higher reproduction rate was maintained for E. fetida compared to P. excavatus and D. bolaui in the decomposition of these forest litters. The rates of growth and population increases of E. fetida approximately doubled after 12 weeks of litter decomposition. The litter decomposition process was associated strongly with the quality of the materials and their chemical composition. Irrespective of earthworm inoculations, the levels of available nutrient such as NH(4)-N, NO(3)-N, available P and K increased significantly (pM. indica litter compost>B. monosperma litter compost. The mature decomposed litter had lower C/N ratios (11.3-24.8:1), water-soluble carbon (0.30-0.58%), water-soluble carbohydrates (0.35-0.71%) and larger cation exchange capacity/total organic carbon ratios than the values in the parent forest litter. The lignin content increased with maturation with a concomitant decrease in cellulose resulting in higher lignin/cellulose ratios.Application of all three vermicomposts to forest trees significantly improved their heights and diameters over those of control trees, although the increases were lower than those resulting from the chemical fertilizer applications. However, soil biological activities i.e. soil respiration, soil microbial biomass carbon and dehydrogenase activity were greater by application of vermicomposts over that after application of inorganic fertilizer in a new plantation of T. grandis.     

The influence of invasive earthworms on indigenous fauna in ecosystems previously uninhabited by earthworms

Recent studies on earthworm invasion of North American soils report dramatic changes in soil structure, nutrient dynamics and plant communities in ecosystems historically free of earthworms. However, the direct and indirect impacts of earthworm invasions on animals have been largely ignored. This paper summarizes the current knowledge on the impact of earthworm invasion on other soil fauna, vertebrates as well as invertebrates.Earthworm invasions can have positive effects on the abundance of other soil invertebrates, but such effects are often small, transient, and restricted to habitats with harsh climates or a long history of earthworm co-occurrence with other soil invertebrates. Middens and burrows can increase soil heterogeneity and create microhabitats with a larger pore size, high microbial biomass, and microclimates that are attractive to micro- and mesofauna. Under harsh climatic conditions, the aggregates formed by earthworms may increase the stability of soil microclimates. Positive effects can also be seen when comminution and mucus secretion increase the palatability of unpalatable organic material for microorganisms which are the main food of most micro- and mesofaunal groups. For larger invertebrates or small vertebrates, invasive earthworms may become important prey, with the potential to increase resource availability. In the longer-term, the activity of invading earthworms can have a strong negative impact on indigenous faunal groups across multiple trophic levels. Evidence from field and laboratory studies indicates that the restructuring of soil layers, particularly the loss of organic horizons, physical disturbance to the soil, alteration of understory vegetation, and direct competition for food resources, lead directly and indirectly to significant declines in the abundance of soil micro- and mesofauna. Though studies of invasive earthworm impacts on the abundance of larger invertebrates or vertebrates are generally lacking, recent evidence suggests that reduced abundance of small soil fauna and alteration of soil microclimates may be contributing to declines in vertebrate fauna such as terrestrial salamanders. Preliminary evidence also suggests the potential for earthworm invasions to interact with other factors such as soil pollution, to negatively affect vertebrate populations.     

Invasion of exotic earthworms into ecosystems inhabited by native earthworms

The most conspicuous biological invasions in terrestrial ecosystems have been by exotic plants, insects and vertebrates. Invasions by exotic earthworms, although not as well studied, may be increasing with global commerce in agriculture, waste management and bioremediation. A number of cases has documented where invasive earthworms have caused significant changes in soil profiles, nutrient and organic matter dynamics, other soil organisms or plant communities. Most of these cases are in areas that have been disturbed (e.g., agricultural systems) or were previously devoid of earthworms (e.g., north of Pleistocene glacial margins). It is not clear that such effects are common in ecosystems inhabited by native earthworms, especially where soils are undisturbed. We explore the idea that indigenous earthworm fauna and/or characteristics of their native habitats may resist invasion by exotic earthworms and thereby reduce the impact of exotic species on soil processes. We review data and case studies from temperate and tropical regions to test this idea. Specifically, we address the following questions: Is disturbance a prerequisite to invasion by exotic earthworms? What are the mechanisms by which exotic earthworms may succeed or fail to invade habitats occupied by native earthworms? Potential mechanisms could include (1) intensity of propagule pressure (how frequently and at what densities have exotic species been introduced and has there been adequate time for proliferation?); (2) degree of habitat matching (once introduced, are exotic species faced with unsuitable habitat conditions, unavailable resources, or unsuited feeding strategies?); and (3) degree of biotic resistance (after introduction into an otherwise suitable habitat, are exotic species exposed to biological barriers such as predation or parasitism, “unfamiliar” microflora, or competition by resident native species?). Once established, do exotic species co-exist with native species, or are the natives eventually excluded? Do exotic species impact soil processes differently in the presence or absence of native species? We conclude that (1) exotic earthworms do invade ecosystems inhabited by indigenous earthworms, even in the absence of obvious disturbance; (2) competitive exclusion of native earthworms by exotic earthworms is not easily demonstrated and, in fact, co-existence of native and exotic species appears to be common, even if transient; and (3) resistance to exotic earthworm invasions, if it occurs, may be more a function of physical and chemical characteristics of a habitat than of biological interactions between native and exotic earthworms.     

植食性昆虫的嗅觉选食过程及其机制研究进展

植食性昆虫的嗅觉在其选择食物的过程中发挥了重要的作用,它能通过对植物挥发物的感受来定向和定位食物源并产生趋近行为,进而根据特殊的化合物或者多种化合物的特异浓度组合来区分寄主和非寄主植物.在这个过程中,昆虫嗅觉器官上相关的嗅觉感受蛋白被植物挥发物激活,形成特异的嗅觉感受通路,在行为上调控昆虫嗅觉选食的能力.本文主要从植食...     

Transmission of a bacterial consortium in Eisenia fetida egg capsules

The earthworm Eisenia fetida harbours Verminephrobacter eiseniae within their excretory nephridia. This symbiont is transferred from the parent into the egg capsules where the cells are acquired by the developing earthworm in a series of recruitment steps. Previous studies defined V. eiseniae as the most abundant cell type in the egg capsules, leaving approximately 30% of the bacteria unidentified and of unknown origin. The study presented here used terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis together with cloning and sequencing of 16S rRNA genes to define the composition of the bacterial consortium in E. fetida egg capsules from early to late development. Newly formed capsules of E. fetida contained three bacterial types, a novel Microbacteriaceae member, a Flexibacteriaceae member and the previously described V. eiseniae. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) using specific and general rRNA probes demonstrated that the bacteria are abundant during early development, colonize the embryo and appear in the adult nephridia. As the capsules mature, Herbaspirillum spp. become abundant although they were not detected within the adult worm. These divergent taxa could serve distinct functions in both the adult earthworm and in the egg capsule to influence the competitive ability of earthworms within the soil community.     

赤子爱胜蚓对两种土壤中细菌群落结构组成及多样性的影响

本研究探讨赤子爱胜蚓（Eisenia fetida）对不同土壤细菌群落结构的影响,以便利用蚯蚓改善土壤生物学质量。选取华南地区赤红壤和水稻土,分别接种赤子爱胜蚓进行10 d室内盆钵培养,运用16S rDNA Illumina Miseq高通量测序技术对培养前后土壤的细菌群落结构进行分析。结果显示：（1）经赤子爱胜蚓取食后,两种土壤的细菌群落结构均发生了改变。赤红壤中增加了5个非优势细菌门,分别为FBP、纤维杆菌门（Fibrobacteres）、OP11、柔膜菌门（Tenericutes）和Thermi;Cytophagia、Spartobacteria和疣微菌纲（Verrucomicrobiae）从非优势细菌纲变为优势细菌纲;Solibacteres从优势细菌纲变为非优势细菌纲。水稻土中海绵菌门（Poribacteria）为新增加的1个非优势细菌门;螺旋体门（Spirochaetes）从非优势细菌门变为优势细菌门;4个非优势细菌门消失,分别为SBR1093、SC4、WS4和WS5;螺旋体纲（Spirochaetes）和疣微菌纲从非优势细菌纲变为优势细菌纲;浮霉菌纲（Planctomycetia）从优势细菌纲变为非优势细菌纲;酸杆菌门（Acidobacteria）、放线菌门（Actinobacteria）、拟杆菌门（Bacteroidetes）、绿弯菌门（Chloroflexi）、厚壁菌门（Firmicutes）、浮霉菌门（Planctomycetes）、变形菌门（Proteobacteria）和疣微菌门（Verrucomicrobia）依然是两种土壤中的优势类群;（2）赤红壤中酸杆菌门的相对丰度显著下降44.90%,拟杆菌门的相对丰度显著上升14.88%;水稻土中酸杆菌门、绿弯菌门、芽单胞菌门（Gemmatimonadetes）、硝化螺旋菌门（Nitrospirae）、浮霉菌门和疣微菌门等6种细菌类群的相对丰度分别显著下降49.05%、20.44%、64.01%、35.00%、33.56%和24.38%,而拟杆菌门和螺旋体门的相对丰度分别显著上升28.85%和154.17%;（3）两种土壤细菌丰度的变化情况存在差异：赤红壤细菌丰度呈上升趋势,水稻土细菌丰度呈下降趋势,而两种土壤的细菌多样性变化则均呈下降趋势。本研究说明,经赤子爱胜蚓取食后赤红壤和水稻土的细菌群落结构组成和多样性均发生变化,为深入理解蚯蚓与土壤微生物群落的相互作用机制提供参考依据。     

蚯蚓在生态系统中的作用

蚯蚓能够对许多决定土壤肥力的过程产生重要影响, 被称为“生态系统工程师”。它通过取食、消化、排泄和掘穴等活动在其体内外形成众多的反应圈, 从而对生态系统的生物、化学和物理过程产生影响。蚯蚓在生态系统中既是消费者、分解者, 又是调节者, 它在生态系统中的功能具体表现在: (1) 对土壤中有机质分解和养分循环等关键过程的影响; (2) 对土壤理化性质的影响; (3) 与植物、微生物及其他动物的相互作用。蚯蚓活动及其在生态系统中的功能受蚯蚓生态类群、种群大小、植被、母岩、气候、时间尺度以及土地利用历史的综合控制。蚯蚓外来种入侵与生态系统的关系以及蚯蚓对全球变化的响应和影响是两个值得关注的问题。土壤本身的复杂性, 蚯蚓自然历史和生物地理学知识的缺乏, 野外控制蚯蚓群落方法的滞后等都限制了蚯蚓生态学的发展。其他新技术如研究养分循环的碳氮同位素分析和揭示土壤微结构的图像分析等技术的应用是蚯蚓生态功能研究的迫切需要。     

Earthworms and eco-consequences: Considerations to soil biological indicators and plant function: A review

Earthworms have been well reported to have a beneficial effect on soil microbes, soil microbial biomass (SMB), fungal community, soil structure, water retention and plant growth in different terrestrial ecosystems. However, the interactions between environmental stressors and various species of earthworms and the subsequent effect on soil microbes, organic matter, soil structure and plant growth are still uncertain. The purpose of this analysis was to test 1- the impact of environmental stressors on earthworm behaviour. 2- the effect of various earthworms on soil microbes, plant growth, soil structure and the carbon cycle. We noted that less fatal temperatures are generally unknown, but higher fatal temperatures range from 25 to 48 °C. Earthworms have a role to play, depending on the nature of organic residues, in both the formation and degradation of soil aggregates. Improvements in microbial biomass and plant growth have been established according to temperature, soil toxicity, soil type, earthworms abundance, organic residues types and field conditions. We observed that although the summer temperature in the arid area was approximately (°C 48), it was found that a particular type of earthworm (Namalycastis indica) was responsible for improving soil characteristics.While a great deal of analysis has been carried out on the role of earthworms within the soil ecology, such a review identifies important knowledge gaps, particularly in the determination of the impacts of earthworm species on the soil structure, microbial biomass and plant productivity, in particular since most papers focused on European species and overlooked the role of earthworms in the arid landscape. Further research is recommended to compare the impacts of different earthworms species on soil microbes and plant growth in various soil types, earthworm abundance, field conditions, organic residues locations, inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, fertile or non-fertile soils and diverse conditions of drought and moisture.     

Ecological functions of volatile organic compounds in aquatic systems

In terrestrial ecosystems, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are widely acknowledged as an important group of infochemicals. They play a major role in pollinator attraction by terrestrial plants and as insect pheromones. Furthermore, they are the mediating agent of so-called 'tritrophic interactions'. When plants are attacked by herbivorous insects, volatile signal substances are emitted, which act as attractants for parasitoids that kill the herbivores, thereby protecting the plant from herbivory. Despite the generally acknowledged importance of VOCs in terrestrial chemical ecology, their functions in aquatic food webs are largely unknown. VOCs produced by algae and cyanobacteria are a major concern in water processing, since aquatic primary producers are the reason for regularly encountered taste and odour problems in drinking water. Only very recently, research in aquatic chemical ecology has started to investigate possible ecological functions for the production of VOCs by algae and cyanobacteria. Volatile aldehydes released by wounded cells of marine planktonic diatoms seem to act as defensive compounds against herbivorous copepods on the population level. Just recently, it was found that VOCs released from benthic algae and cyanobacteria can be utilised as food and/or habitat finding cues by aquatic invertebrates such as freshwater gastropods and nematodes. Here, I review concepts and recent experimental studies on the ecological functions of such VOCs in aquatic ecosystems. Understanding the factors that lead to the liberation of volatile compounds is an essential prerequisite to properly assessing their ecological functions. It appears that (similar to terrestrial plant-herbivore interactions) VOCs can also play a steering role for both attraction and defence in aquatic ecosystems.     

How do earthworms affect microfloral and faunal community diversity?

Much of the work regarding earthworm effects on other organisms has focused on the functional significance of microbial-earthworm interactions, and little is known on the effects of earthworms on microfloral and faunal diversity. Earthworms can affect soil microflora and fauna populations directly and indirectly by three main mechanisms: (1) comminution, burrowing and casting; (2) grazing; (3) dispersal. These activities change the soil's physico-chemical and biological status and may cause drastic shifts in the density, diversity, structure and activity of microbial and faunal communities within the drilosphere. Certain organisms and species may be enhanced, reduced or not be affected at all depending on their ability to adapt to the particular conditions of different earthworm drilospheres. A large host of factors (including CaCO₃, enzymes, mucus and antimicrobial substances) influence the ability of preferentially or randomly ingested organisms to survive (or not) passage through the earthworm gut, and their resultant capacity to recover and proliferate (or not) in earthworm casts. Small organisms, particularly microflora and microfauna, with limited ability to move within the soil, may benefit from the (comparatively) long ranging movements of earthworms. Microflora and smaller fauna appear to be particularly sensitive to earthworm activities, and priming effects enhancing nutrient release, particularly in casts, are common. Larger fauna such as microarthropods, enchytraeids and Isopods may be enhanced under some conditions (e.g., in earthworm middens), but in other cases earthworm activity may lead to a decrease in their populations due to competition for food (microbes and organic materials), and spatial and temporal changes in food abundance. Nevertheless, considering the presently available data, the beneficial interactions of earthworms and microflora and fauna appear to far outweigh the potential negative effects. However, much is still unknown regarding the interactions of earthworms of different ecological categories on the diversity and function of microfloral and faunal communities, and much more interdisciplinary research is needed to assess the potential role of earthworms in regulating the diversity of microflora and fauna in soil systems and the potentially beneficial or harmful effects this regulation may have on ecosystem function and plant growth in different ecosystems.     

Pollinator attraction in Cornus capitata (Cornaceae): the relative role of visual and olfactory cues

Aims It is generally accepted that visual displays and floral scent play important roles in communication between flowering plants and their pollinators. However, the relative role of visual and olfactory cues in pollinator attraction is largely unknown. In this study, we determined the roles of both types of cue in attracting pollinators to Cornus capitata, a medium sized tree with each capitulum surrounded by four large, white, petaloid bracts.Methods Pollinator observations and pollination experiments were conducted in a natural population; the inflorescences' visual and olfactory signals were characterized by spectral and chemical analyses; the responses of pollinators to visual and olfactory cues were tested using dual-choice behavioural bioassays; the relative roles of visual and olfactory cues in pollinator attraction were tested by comparing the responses of pollinators to inflorescences subjected to three experimental treatments (intact, all bracts removed, and capitulum removed) within the natural population.Important findings For fruit set, C. capitata is entirely dependent on pollinators, with a bee, Anthophora sp., being the main pollinator. Bracts present high colour distance and green contrast against the leaves. Twelve volatile compounds in the floral scent were detected, most of which have previously been reported to be attractive to a broad spectrum of bee species. Behavioural bioassays showed that both, visual cues alone and olfactory cues alone, are attractive to pollinating bees. However, visual cues alone attracted significantly more approaches than olfactory cues alone, while olfactory cues alone elicited a significantly higher landing percentage than visual cues alone. The finding suggests that, in the C. capitata – Anthophora sp. interaction, visual cues are mainly used for location from long distances, while olfactory cues mainly aid landing from short distances. Our results indicate that different modalities of floral cues should be considered together to understand fully the communication between flowering plant and pollinators.     

Nest mounds of red wood ants (Formicaaquilonia): hot spots for litter-dwelling earthworms

A previously undocumented association between earthworms and red wood ants (Formicaaquilonia Yarr.) was found during an investigation of the influence of wood ants on the distribution and abundance of soil animals in boreal forest soil. Ant nest mounds and the surrounding soil of the ant territories were sampled. The ant nest mound surface (the uppermost 5-cm layer) harboured a much more abundant earthworm community than the surrounding soil; the biomass of the earthworms was about 7 times higher in the nests than in the soil. Dendrodrilusrubidus dominated the earthworm community in the nests, while in soils Dendrobaenaoctaedra was more abundant. Favorable temperature, moisture and pH (Ca content), together with abundant food supply (microbes and decomposing litter) are likely to make a nest mound a preferred habitat for earthworms, provided that they are not preyed upon by the ants. We also conducted laboratory experiments to study antipredation mechanisms of earthworms against ants. The experiments showed that earthworms do not escape predation by avoiding contact with ants in their nests. The earthworm mucus repelled the ants, suggesting a chemical defence against predation. Earthworms probably prevent the nest mounds from becoming overgrown by moulds and fungi, indicating possible mutualistic relationships between the earthworms and the ants. Received: 21 November 1996 / Accepted: 3 April 1997     

Ecosystem Consequences of Exotic Earthworm Invasion of North Temperate Forests

The invasion of north temperate forests by exotic species of earthworms is an important issue that has been overlooked in the study and management of these forests. We initiated research to address the hypothesis that earthworm invasion will have large consequences for nutrient retention and uptake in these ecosystems. In this special feature of Ecosystems, we present five papers describing results from our experiment. In this paper, we (a) introduce our experimental approach and conceptual model of how earthworms influence forest ecosystem processes, (b) describe the characteristics of the study areas and earthworm communities at our two study locations, and (c) provide a brief overview and synthesis of the main findings. The most dramatic effect of earthworm invasion was the loss of the forest floor at an undisturbed forest site, which altered the location and nature of nutrient cycling activity in the soil profile. Invasion changed soil total carbon (C) and phosphorus (P) pools, carbon–nitrogen (C:N) ratios, the loss and distribution of different soil P fractions, and the distribution and function of roots and microbes. Response to invasion varied with site characteristics and earthworm species. Our results suggest that exotic earthworm invasion is a significant factor that will influence the structure and function of northern temperate forest ecosystems over the next few decades. Regional evaluations of these forests will need to consider the presence or absence of earthworms along with other important ecosystem drivers, such as pollution, climate, and underlying soil characteristics.     

视觉和嗅觉信号对果蝇食物搜寻行为的协同作用

为了探索视觉和嗅觉信号在昆虫食物搜寻过程中的作用, 本研究利用杨梅和橘子为引诱物, 在实验室条件下测定了嗅觉和视觉信号诱集到的黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster数量, 分析了嗅觉经历对果蝇嗅觉和视觉食物搜寻的影响。发现同源性嗅觉和视觉信号存在的杨梅诱集到的果蝇数量显著大于单一的视觉信号和嗅觉信号, 但异源性嗅觉和视觉信号组合诱集到的果蝇数量和单独的嗅觉信号相似。嗅觉信号预处理不仅能够显著增加嗅觉信号诱集到的果蝇数量, 其中杨梅嗅觉信号对杨梅预处理果蝇的吸引能力与视觉和嗅觉信号存在的杨梅相似, 而且异源性嗅觉和视觉信号组合诱集到的预处理果蝇数量也不低于视觉和嗅觉信号存在的杨梅。另外杨梅嗅觉信号预处理也能够显著增强杨梅视觉信号诱集到的果蝇数量。但嗅觉预处理并不会改变同源性视觉和嗅觉信号组合诱集到的果蝇数量。本研究表明, 果蝇同时利用视觉和嗅觉信号进行食物搜寻, 因此同源性视觉和嗅觉信号在果蝇诱集过程中具有协同作用。另外果蝇具有较强的记忆和学习能力, 能够将记忆中的嗅觉信号应用于食物搜寻。本研究结果不仅有利于我们了解果蝇在自然状态下的食物搜寻机制, 而且有利于开发更有效的果蝇新型诱捕器。     

Introduced earthworms in agricultural and reclaimed land: their ecology and influences on soil properties, plant production and other soil biota

Accidental and deliberate introductions of earthworms into agricultural and reclaimed land are natural experiments that provide opportunities to understand the attributes of successful invaders and their impacts on local biota and ecosystem processes. We consider various case studies (e.g., earthworm invasions in agricultural soils in Australia and Brazil) and deliberate introductions of earthworms into reclaimed mine sites, landfills and cutaway peat in the U.K. and Ireland. Invasions of exotic earthworms, such as European Lumbricidae in Australia, have been geographically extensive, but remain very patchy at regional and field scales. Their impacts on soil properties, plant production and other biota are therefore also likely to be patchy. Various methods have been developed to deliberately inoculate exotic earthworms into disturbed lands, with varying degrees of success. The factors controlling success are, in general, poorly understood. A broad range of impacts of invasive earthworms on soil properties (e.g., soil structure, nutrient availability, burial of surface materials, incidence of root diseases) and plant yield and quality have been reported. Less is known of the impacts of invasive earthworms on other soil fauna, but they are likely to occur due to alterations in food availability and habitat structure. Influences on other biota are likely to extend to aboveground communities as well as those belowground. Introductions of earthworms to disturbed lands can yield substantial benefits in agricultural productivity and amelioration of soil degradation. However, the potential impact of the promotion or control of such introductions on non-target biota and ecosystem processes in pristine ecosystems nearby should be considered.     

Odorant receptor phylogeny confirms conserved channels for sex pheromone and host plant signals in tortricid moths

The search for mates and food is mediated by volatile chemicals. Insects sense food odorants and sex pheromones through odorant receptors (ORs) and pheromone receptors (PRs), which are expressed in olfactory sensory neurons. Molecular phylogenetics of ORs, informed by behavioral and functional data, generates sound hypotheses for the identification of semiochemicals driving olfactory behavior. Studying orthologous receptors and their ligands across taxa affords insights into the role of chemical communication in reproductive isolation and phylogenetic divergence. The female sex pheromone of green budworm moth Hedya nubiferana (Lepidoptera, Totricidae) is a blend of two unsaturated acetates, only a blend of both elicits male attraction. Females produce in addition codlemone, which is the sex pheromone of another tortricid, codling moth Cydia pomonella. Codlemone also attracts green budworm moth males. Concomitantly, green budworm and codling moth males are attracted to the host plant volatile pear ester. A congruent behavioral response to the same pheromone and plant volatile in two tortricid species suggests co‐occurrence of dedicated olfactory channels. In codling moth, one PR is tuned to both compounds, the sex pheromone codlemone and the plant volatile pear ester. Our phylogenetic analysis finds that green budworm moth expresses an orthologous PR gene. Shared ancestry, and high levels of amino acid identity and sequence similarity, in codling and green budworm moth PRs offer an explanation for parallel attraction of both species to the same compounds. A conserved olfactory channel for a sex pheromone and a host plant volatile substantiates the alliance of social and habitat signals in insect chemical communication. Field attraction assays confirm that in silico investigations of ORs afford powerful predictions for an efficient identification of behavior‐modifying semiochemicals, for an improved understanding of the mechanisms of host plant attraction in insect herbivores and for the further development of sustainable insect control.