Predation on Orthoptera and other orders in insects by tamarin monkeys, Saguinus mystax mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons (Primates: Callitrichidae), in north-eastern Peru

Kaytydids and related insects are an important component in the diets of moustached ( Saguinus mystax mystax ) and saddle-back tamarins ( Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons ). Based on preliminary data of captured prey, trends suggest that partitioning occurs regarding orthopterans as a limited food resource. Of species caputre as prey, only three were shared by both tamarin species. Saddle-back tamarins appeared to specialize more on understorey species (0-4 m), concentrating on pseudophylline katydids. Moustached tamarins incorporated a greater percentage of phaneropterine katydids from the lower to middle canopy into their diet of insects. Although most prey species were exposed to view during the diurnal feeding period of the tamarins, only the saddle-back tamarin fed on katydids that spend the day concealed from view within dead curled leaves. Differentiation of the prey spectrum may represent a critical pattern of niche differentiation in these two sympatric tamarin species, which show a high overlap in their plant food resources.     

Intracardiac thrombosis and aortic dissecting aneurysms in mustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax) with cardiomyopathy

Spontaneous intracardiac thrombosis is rarely reported in animals, particularly nonhuman primates. The finding of 2 cases of intracardiac thrombi in mustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax) that died as a consequence of congestive heart failure prompted us to do a retrospective study to determine the frequency of this condition. Clinical records, necropsy reports, and tissues from 60 mustached tamarins that died or were euthanized between 1996 and 2009 were reviewed. Of the 60 monkeys whose cases were reviewed, 10 (16.6%) had intracardiac thrombi, and 4 (6.6%) had dissecting aortic aneurysms. Of the 10 animals with intracardiac thrombosis, 3 had left ventricular involvement alone; 4 monkeys had thrombi only in the right ventricle, and the remaining 3 animals exhibited thrombi in both ventricles. Myocardial fibrosis and chronic renal disease were common findings in affected animals. The causes of the intracardiac thrombosis in the tamarins in the present study are not known, but the clinical signs and gross and microscopic lesions suggest that congestive heart failure secondary to cardiomyopathy is the primary contributor. In addition, the cause of the aortic dissecting aneurysms in the tamarins in this study is not known. Further studies are required to determine whether factors including aortic curvature, genetic background, or hypertension-alone or in combination-play a role. To our knowledge, the current retrospective study is the first report of intracardiac thrombosis and aortic aneurysms in mustached tamarins.     

Dentition of moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax mystax) from Padre Isla, Peru, part 1: quantitative variation

Analyses of dental variation in geographically restricted, wild populations of primates are extremely rare; however, such data form the best source for models of likely degrees of variation within and between fossil species. Data from dental casts of a geographically restricted population of moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax mystax) from Padre Isla, Peru, document high levels of dental variability, as measured by coefficients of variation, in a nonsexually dimorphic species, despite its isolation and small population size. Like other primates, moustached tamarins show lower variability in the dimensions of the first molars and increased variability in the dimensions of the final molars in the toothrow. Moustached tamarins from Padre Isla have a distinctive pattern of variability in the remaining teeth, including more stable tooth lengths in the anterior and posterior portions of the toothrow, and more stable tooth widths in the midregion of the toothrow. High variability in incisor width may be due to age effects of a distinctive diet and pattern of dental wear.     

Reproduction of wild-caught tamarins (Saguinus mystax mystax) under laboratory conditions

The reproductive performance of tamarins (Saguinus mystax mystax) under laboratory conditions was evaluated. Fifteen of 20 male-female pairs were fertile and produced 30 live births during an observation period of 3.5 years. Twenty-six breeders (65%) and 12 offspring (40%) more than 3 years old were alive at the termination of the reporting period.     

Prey foraging of red titi monkeys, Callicebus cupreus, in comparison to sympatric tamarins, Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis

We compared the prey capture strategies of red titi monkeys, Callicebus cupreus, with those of sympatric mustached, Saguinus mystax, and saddleback tamarins, Saguinus fuscicollis, to examine whether animal prey is important in niche differentiation between these Neotropical primates. We collected data on strata and substrate use during foraging, on prey searching and capturing, and on prey type of two C. cupreus groups and one group each of S. mystax and S. fuscicollis during a 5-month field study in northeastern Peruvian Amazonia. Our results showed that C. cupreus differed both from S. mystax and S. fuscicollis in prey capture strategies: (1) C. cupreus used lower forest strata for prey search and capture than S. mystax and higher forest strata than S. fuscicollis. (2) C. cupreus captured prey on a higher variety of substrates than S. mystax and more often on open microhabitats compared to S. fuscicollis. (3) C. cupreus captured prey more often directly than S. mystax and rarely by manual search, in contrast to S. fuscicollis. (4) C. cupreus fed exclusively on arthropods and focused on Hymenoptera, in contrast to both tamarin species that focused on Orthoptera and included vertebrates in their diet. These findings indicate that animal prey plays a role in niche differentiation between C. cupreus and S. fuscicollis/S. mystax and might facilitate the coexistence of these three sympatric species.     

The insectivorous-frugivorous diet of the golden-handed tamarin (Saguinus midas midas) in French Guiana

The diet of Saguinus midas is characterised by analysis of stomach contents samples on an annual and seasonal basis. The diet comprises significant proportions of both fruit and insects all year round, although fruit use shows important seasonal variations. The tamarins reduce their use of fruit resources during the peak fruiting season and instead exploit increased opportunities for insectivory. This is suggested to be a response to differences in gross fruit availability as a function of both fruiting patterns and the presence of competitors for the available fruit resources.     

Species-specific variants of GB virus A in captive monkeys .

Sequences from the putative 5' nontranslated region of GB virus A were isolated from mystax, owl monkeys, and tamarins. Though sequences of isolates from each animal species are virtually identical at the nucleotide level (95%), isolates from different species are dramatically different (52 to 79% identical) and genetically cluster on this basis.     

Body weights in mixed species troops of Saguinus mystax mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons in Amazonian Peru

An investigation of body weights of members of mixed species troops of Saguinus mystax mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis nigrifrons was conducted at the Rio Blanco Research Station in northeastern Peru. A total of 107 adult and subadult tamarin monkeys were trapped, measured, and released. Data collected indicate that mean body weights for adult male and female moustached tamarins are 564 gm and 626 gm, respectively, whereas for adult saddle-back tamarins these values are 412 gm and 411 gm. Subadults weighed 11-27% less than adults. Body weights recorded in this study are significantly greater than those previously reported for tamarins of the same species and age living in other areas of Amazonian Peru. We hypothesize that, in the case of moustached and saddle-back tamarins, advantages associated with feeding and foraging in mixed species troops facilitate greater efficiency in resource monitoring and result in the maintenance of larger body weights.     

Diet and feeding ecology of saddle-back (Saguinus fuscicollis) and moustached (S. mystax) tamarins in an Amazonian terra firme forest

The feeding ecology of two small-bodied primate species—saddle-back ( Saguinus fuscicollis auilapiresi ) and moustached tamarins ( S. mystax pileatus )—occurring in stable, mixed-species groups was studied in a terra firme forest site in the upper Urucu River, Amazonas, Brazil. Ecological data are based primarily on one mixed-species group of 5–8 saddle-back and 8–10 moustached tamarins. The overall vegetative and animal-prey components of each tamarin species' diet, their selection of food species, and the seasonal variation in their use of plant resources are described, and compared to those of callitrichids elsewhere. The extremely diverse diet of tamarins included at least 136 tree, 33 vine and liana, 12 epiphyte and nine shrub species, as well as a wide range of prey items. They fed primarily on ripe fruit pulp of most of these species for most of the year, but shifted to floral nectar and plant exudates of a few key plant species during the dry season. Taxonomic overlap in plant diet was nearly complete between the two tamarin species, but they diverged considerably in their prey capture techniques. Saddle-backs used the low forest understorey, and manipulatively searched for sedentary prey concealed within discrete, usually rigid, microhabitats, whereas moustached tamarins used the midstorey where they visually searched for mobile prey well exposed on foliage. These and other feeding and foraging patterns are discussed in the light of other callitrichid species studied to date.     

Restricted dietary protein in pregnant beef cows: I. The effect on length of gestation and calfhood mortality

Beef cows fed 0.37 Kg crude protein/day during the last four months of pregnancy had significantly shortened gestation (274 days vs. 282 days) and decreased weight gain (25 Kg vs. 66 Kg) compared to control cows fed 0.96 Kg crude protein/day. Calf mortality in the low protein group was associated with either dystocia (3 calves) or prematurity (2 calves). There were no deaths among control calves. It is suggested that protein malnutrition in late pregnancy may be a contributing factor to neonatal mortality among beef calves.     

Sleeping habits of tamarins, Saguinus mystax and Saguinus fuscicollis (Mammalia; Primates; Callitrichidae), in north-eastern Peru

The sleeping habits of moustached tamarins, Saguinus mystax , and saddle-back tamarins, Saguinus fuscicollis , were studied in northeastern Peru. Five types of sleeping sites were distinguished: 1) Jessenia bataua palms; 2) tree hollows; 3) dense tangles of vegetation; 4) crotches; 5) open horizontal branches. Both tamarin species used Jesseniu-palms most frequently. Tree hollows ranked second in the saddle-back tamarins, but were never used by moustached tamarins. Sleeping sites of moustached tamarins were located significantly higher than those of saddle-back tamarins. Jessenia -palms used by moustached tamarins were significantly higher than palms from a random transect sample, but this was not the case for Jessenia -palms used by saddle-back tamarins. For both species, concealment seems to be more important than height above ground. The maximum number of subsequent nights spent in the same sleeping site was two in moustached tamarins and six in saddle-back tamarins. The two tamarin species did not compete for sleeping sites. While the general pattern of sleeping site selection conforms to hypotheses predicting safety from predators as a major factor, differences between the two tamarin species reflect general niche differences between them. Most sleeping sites are located in exclusively used parts of the home range. Moustached tamarins generally use sleeping sites that are close to the last feeding site of the afternoon. The distance between simultaneously used sleeping sites of moustached and saddle-back tamarins are generally close together, which helps to minimize time spent out of interspecific association.     

Pathology of captive moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax)

The pathology of 33 moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax) previously used in hepatitis A and GB virus studies is reported. Chronic lesions in colon, heart, and kidney were common in the monkeys and appeared not to be due to the experimental exposures. Colitis cystica profunda (CCP), a disease that affects humans and is characterized by the presence of mucin-filled epithelial downgrowths and cysts in the colonic submucosa, was found in 24 of the 33 (72.7%) tamarins. Interstitial myocardial fibrosis was present in 22 (66.6%) animals, and various degrees of membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis occurred in 28 (84.8%) monkeys. In addition, 28 (84.8%) tamarins demonstrated diffuse hepatocellular vacuolation with mild lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates, possibly as a result of the experimental infections, and peliosis hepatis occurred in 7 (21.2%) animals. The etiology of CCP is unknown, and no reliable animal models are available because most cases in animals are reported only sporadically. Myocardial fibrosis in tamarins has not been reported previously, and all current animal models require experimental manipulation of the animal to mimic the human disease. The results from this study suggest that captive S. mystax has high incidence of spontaneous CCP, myocardial fibrosis, and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. This species may be a spontaneous animal model for pathogenesis and experimental therapy studies of the analogous human diseases.     

Food patch structure and plant resource partitioning in interspecific associations of amazonian tamarins

ávila-Pires’ saddle-back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis avilapiresi) and red-cap moustached tamarins (S. mystax pileatus), coexisting in highly stable mixed-species groups, overlapped considerably in their use of plant food resources at an Amazonian terra firme forest site. Overlap between food types consumed by the two species was particularly high during periods of lowest fruit availability, when they resorted to a common food supply, primarily the pod exudates of two emergent species of legume trees (Parkia nitida andParkia pendula) and nectar ofSymphonia globulifera. Within-group interspecific competition did not covary with independent measures of resource availability, contrary to predictions based on resource partitioning models. A greater number of both saddle-back and moustached tamarins were able to feed for longer patch residence periods within larger and more productive food patches, whereas small and clumped patches could be monopolized by the socially and numerically dominant moustached tamarins to the physical exclusion of the smaller-bodied saddle-back tamarins. Overall rates of interspecific aggression were extremely low, however, partly because patches that could be monopolized contributed with a minor proportion of either species’ diet. Saddle-backs foraged at lower levels in the understory and encountered smaller food patches more often, whereas moustached tamarins foraged higher and encountered more larger patches in the middle canopy. Although the two species led one another to differently-sized patches, moustached tamarins initiated most feeding bouts and encountered significantly larger and more productive patches that tended to accommodate the entire mixed-species group. Disadvantages of exploitative and interference feeding competition over plant resources, and advantages of shared knowledge of food patches, are but one component of the overall cost-benefit relationship of interspecific associations in tamarins.     

Social and seasonal influences on reproductive biology in male moustached tamarins (Saguinus mystax)

In several primate taxa there is evidence that the social and physical environment can exert a significant effect on reproductive behavior and biology. In this paper we examine social and physiological factors influencing group composition and reproduction in free-ranging moustached tamarin monkeys (Saguinus mystax mystax). This species is characterized by cooperative care of the young and a breeding system that includes both polyandrous and polygyandrous matings. Body measurements collected on adult males residing in multimale groups indicate marked within-group differences in testes volume. In 12 of 17 groups examined, testes volume of at least two resident adult males differed by 21–174%. Among these males, testes volume was not correlated with either body weight or adult age class. We also examine whether factors such as time of year had an effect on reproductive condition. An analysis of body measurements of 128 adult male and 127 adult female moustached tamarins, wild-trapped and released in northeastern Peru, indicates cyclic changes in genital size. For males, mean monthly testes volume in July (712 mm³) was twice that recorded in June (351 mm³). Females exhibited a similar pattern. Although endocrine information on intra- and intersexual social effects on fertility are unavailable for S. mystax, given the high degree of social cooperation and lack of overt aggression among adult male group members, we offer the possibility that resident male moustached tamarins compete for access to the groups' lone breeding female through socially induced reproductive suppression and sperm competition. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Study of crude protein intake and growth response in captive subadult giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

Feeding trials were conducted on seven subadult giant pandas (1.5–4.7 years old). The giant pandas consumed diets with 20 various levels of crude protein (CP): 132.9, 186.8, 206.0, 233.1, 251.4, 255.2, 288.5, 290.8, 299.1, 334.6, 370.7, 378.7, 379.9, 399.2, 372.6, 411.4, 436.1, 484.4, 509.3, and 563.7 g/day. According to the differences in the body weight (BW) gain (weight/month (W/M)) and the amounts of ingested CP, subadult giant pandas are divided into at least three age groups: 1.5–2.0, 2.5–3.9, and 4.0–4.7 years. Although there apparently is no direct relationship between the ΔW/M and the CP consumed by all the giant pandas, a linear relationship existed between the square root of CP ingested (g) per unit BW (W^0.75, Kg) and weight gain per month (ΔW/M, Kg/M) of giant pandas aged 1.5–2.0 years. No such relationship existed in the giant pandas aged 2.5–4.7 years, but ΔW/M decreased with the increasing CP per unit gross energy (GE) consumed (CP/GE). For the 1.5–2.0‐year‐old giant pandas, CP for maintenance was determined at 3.6576 g/Kg W^0.75/day when ΔW/M was 0, and CP for growth was 1.7541 g/Kg W^0.75/day when ΔW/M was equal to 1 Kg/M; thus, suitable intake of total CP is 9.95 g/Kg W^0.75/day. The average value of ingested CP was 13.54 ± 3.01 g/KgW^0.75/day for 2.5–3.9‐year‐old pandas, and 12.25 g/KgW^0.75/day for 4.5–4.7‐year‐old pandas. Zoo Biol 21:223–232, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Spontaneous terminal ileitis resembling Crohn disease in captive tamarins

Five tamarins (four Saguinus mystax and one S. labiatus) died with wasting syndrome characterized by chronic diarrhea at the Center for Reproduction and Conservation of Non-Human Primates in Iquitos, Peru. At necropsy, the terminal ileum of all affected tamarins was found to be markedly thickened. Histologically, the terminal ileal mucosa was completely ulcerated, and effaced by debris and mononuclear inflammatory cells. The submucosa and serosa were thickened by fibroplasia, mononuclear cell infiltrates and variable edema. No infectious agent was observed. The lesions were similar to those described previously for Crohn disease. This is to our knowledge the first report of terminal ileitis resembling Crohn disease in non-human primates.     

Protein requirements of subadult nilgai antelope

1. The maintenance crude protein (CP) requirements of subadult nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus) were determined by nitrogen balance. Four isocaloric pelleted diets, ranging from 8.4 to 23.8% CP, were fed. 2. Subadults maintained a positive nitrogen balance on all diets. Linear regression showed that 95.8% of diet CP was truly digested and estimated metabolic fecal nitrogen (NFN) excretion at 0.388 gN/W0.75/day. 3. Estimates for endogenous urinary nitrogen excretion and maintenance nitrogen requirement, derived through linear regression, were erroneous. Consequently, the former was calculated based on metabolic size (0.126 gN/W0.75/day) and added to MFN to obtain an 0.514 gN/W0.75/day estimate of required nitrogen for maintenance. This value is between the levels recommended for maintenance of yearling deer and cattle. 4. Given the same level of dry matter intake (68.6 g/W0.75/day) and true CP digestibility, study animals would be able to meet N equilibrium on a 4.89% CP (dry matter basis) diet. 5. Based on data from other sources, natural diets containing 6.98% CP would need to be consumed by free-ranging subadults to maintain body weight.     

Sperm parameters and testicular volumes in Saguinus mystax

Adult male Saguinus mystax tamarins were evaluated for sperm parameters and testicular volumes. Sperm concentrations average 195.5 X 10(6)/cc with 41.7% motile sperm. Semen specimens were classified as normal, relative to sperm morphology, when 95% or more of the sperm in the specimen had normal morphology; 76% of the animals evaluated had normal semen specimens using this criterion. Testicular volumes averaged 726.9 mm3. A total of 50 infants were sired by 16 of these males during the period covered by this report.     

Habitat Use and Ranging Behavior of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Callimico goeldii</Emphasis>

We studied the diet, habitat use, and ranging behavior of 1 group of Callimico goeldii (callimicos) over 12 mo in northwestern Bolivia. The group’s diet was comprised of fungi (39%), fruits (31%), arthropods (14%), exudates (14%), and other matter (2%). Callimicos concentrated their ranging activities in secondary forest (50%), primary forest with dense understory (30%), and bamboo (17%) habitats. The group’s total home range was 114 ha; on average they used 38.4 ha/ mo and had a day range of 925 m. Monthly average day ranges—but not monthly home ranges—increased as frugivory declined, suggesting that subjects foraged on fungi and exudates by rechecking resources within a core area, making their day ranges longer than during months when they concentrated on fruit resources. The callimicos formed polyspecific associations with tamarins (Saguinus labiatus and S. fuscicollis) during 81% of observations. Day ranges increased in months with higher association rates which appears to result from the callimicos using a broader set of habitats when with tamarins than when alone. The ranging pattern of callimicos appears to be influenced primarily by 3 factors: their seasonal shift in diet requires that they forage in a variety of habitats across the year; their depletion of resources causes them to shift their core area over time; and their lack of territorial behavior eliminates the need to patrol boundaries as part of their daily movement. As a result, callimicos differ from many other callitrichids in their low ratio of day range length to home range size.     

Effect of dietary crude protein on ammonia-N emission measured by herd nitrogen mass balance in a freestall dairy barn managed under farm-like conditions

The main objective of this experiment was to monitor the impact of barn side and dietary crude protein (CP) on production performance, manure production and composition, and ammonia nitrogen (N) emission from a lactating dairy herd housed in a free-stall barn and managed under farm-like conditions throughout a number of months in each season of the year. The 78-cow lactating herd of the University of Wisconsin-Platteville (USA) was halved and each group was allocated to either the north or south side of the barn and either a recommended (REC) diet with 16.7 ± 1.3% CP dry matter basis (DM) or an excess (EXC) CP diet containing 1.5 units of CP above the REC diet (18.2 ± 1.5%). In 7 months between February 2004 and January 2005, total manure collection was conducted by manual scraping of the alleys and ammonia-N emission was calculated as intake N + bedding N - milk N - scraped manure N. Side of the barn (northern v. southern exposure) did not influence measurements and there was no effect of dietary CP on dry matter intake (DMI), milk, milk fat, and milk protein production, but a lower manure N concentration was observed for the group of cows fed the REC diet compared with the EXC diet (3.43% v. 3.66% of DM). Nitrogen intake was 63 g/day lower (643 v. 706 g/day), milk N was unaffected (157 g/day), manure N was 32 g/day lower (391 v. 423 g/day), and ammonia-N emission was 34 g/day lower (93 v. 127 g/day) for the group consuming the REC diet compared with the group consuming the EXC diet. There were larger variations in measured responses among months of the year than between level of dietary CP. Wet and dry manure excretions tended to be higher, but manure pH was reduced when corn silage became unavailable and the diet included additional corn grain and alfalfa silage as the only forage source. Prediction of manure N excretion for a group of cow determined as N intake - N milk was 9% higher than current prediction equations of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Ammonia-N loss averaged 110 g/day per lactating cow, but ranged from 64 g/day to 178 g/day with no clear seasonal pattern. There was no clear association between barn temperature, manure temperature or manure pH and ammonia-N emission; however, intake N explained 61% of the variation in ammonia-N emission.