Social Relationships Among Male <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis>

We investigated male social relationships in 2 groups of black howlers (Alouatta pigra) in Palenque National Park, Mexico, over a 14-mo study characterized by frequent changes in male group membership. Both single males and pairs of males entered our focal groups. Single males tended to join groups, whereas pairs of males entering groups together successfully evicted resident males. The 19 male dyads across the 11 periods defined by changes in group membership were rarely in close proximity or interacting with one another. Nevertheless, 1 male formed significantly closer associations with resident females in 6 periods and achieved higher mating success during 4 of the periods when ≥1 female was sexually active. In the other 5 periods, no particular male maintained significantly closer associations with resident females, which may be a result of the rapid sequence of changes in male membership and corresponding social instability. Resident males participated frequently and consistently in mutual howling, but the resident male with the strongest female associations and highest mating success initiated howling bouts more frequently in all but 1 of the 6 socially stable periods. Though still preliminary, our findings suggest that variation in social relationships among male black howlers may be more related to their ability to establish strong relationships with females than to their relationships with one another.     

The distributions of howling monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. palliata</Emphasis>) in southeastern Mexico and Central America

We compared the distributions of Alouatta palliata and A. pigra in southeastern Mexico and Central America with geographic and ecological features to infer current barriers and ecological preferences. Distribution data were obtained from museum specimen localities, study sites, historic records and field surveys and integrated into digital elevation and ecosystem maps using GIS. A. pigra evidently occurs at a number of sites above 2,000 m, where temperatures can even drop below zero on some days of the year, thus indicating a broader ecological tolerance than previously reported. Both species occupy a number of vegetation types and can be found in seasonal and nonseasonal forests. We identified the highland massif of northern Central America and its associated coniferous and subalpine vegetation as a geographic barrier that separates the species. In the past, distribution maps for these species have indicated adjacent contiguous ranges, but we propose that they are largely separated by these mountains. There are two contact zones: a broad area of sympatry north of the highland massif in Mexico and a narrow zone in eastern Guatemala where parapatry is maintained by a river barrier and where only A. pigra occurs in the high elevations and cooler habitats inland. We explore an alternative biogeographic scenario for the split of the two species that accounts for the current distribution and differences in elevation and cold tolerances. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Wild mixed groups of howler species (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta caraya</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta clamitans</Emphasis>) and new evidence for their hybridization

Mixed species groups and hybridization are common among primates, yet these phenomena are rare and poorly understood for the genus Alouatta. In this study, we describe the composition of howler groups in a sympatric area of Alouatta caraya and Alouatta clamitans and provide new evidence for the occurrence of interspecific hybridization. Between October 2006 and April 2007, 11 howler groups were located in a 150-ha forest fragment: two monospecific groups of A. caraya, two monospecific groups of A. clamitans, two groups composed of A. clamitans and hybrid morphotypes (A. caraya × A. clamitans), and five groups composed of both species together with hybrid morphotypes (mixed species groups). The average size of the studied groups was 5.2 ± 1.2 individuals. Monospecific and mixed groups (mixed species groups + groups with hybrids) did not differ significantly in their sizes. In total, the sex/age ratios were 1 AM:1.5 AF:0.2 SAM:0.5 JUV:0.2 INF and the species ratios were 1 A. caraya:1.6 A. clamitans:0.4 A. caraya × A. clamitans. The ratio of immatures to 1AF was larger in the monospecific groups (0.75 immatures:1AF) than in mixed groups (0.29 immatures:1AF), possibly reflecting a lower viability in the latter. Two features of the hybrid morphotypes of the upper Paraná River support their status as true hybrids: the polymorphism of their coloration patterns and the extremely female-biased sex ratio. The effects of Haldane’s rule and population fragmentation on the interactions between both species are discussed. Contribution number 1689 of the Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Caixa Postal 19020, 81531-990, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil. Contract grant sponsor: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq).     

Survey of the black howler monkey,<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis>, population at the Mayan site of Palenque,Chiapas, Mexico

A survey of the population of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) present at the Mayan site of Palenque was conducted during 2000. A total of 911 man/hours, spread over 112 days were spent surveying the 600 ha area of pristine forest at the site for howler troops. We detected the presence of 136 individuals of which 131 were members of 20 troops, the rest were 3 solitary adult males and 2 adult males travelling as a pair. Ecological density was estimated at 23 individuals/km². Mean troop size was 7.0 individuals and it ranged from 2–12 individuals; 60% of the troops were multimale. All sighting of howler monkeys were in evergreen rain forest and 75% were in trees ≥20 m in height. The reported densities and mean troop size are higher than those reported for the species in Guatemala and in central Quintana Roo, Mexico. The vegetation of the forest contains tree species reported to be used by species ofAlouatta in the Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Leguminosae, and Lauraceae plant families. Protection of a large perimeter area (ca 1700 ha) around the archeological site by the Mexican government ensures the conservation of the forest and of the black howler monkey population present at the site.     

Determination of Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites to Evaluate Stress Response in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis>

Measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites is now a common practice to assess the stress response in primates. Nevertheless, it is important to validate the utilized immunoassay for each primate species before the technique is applied to populations in the wild. We determined the stress response of black howlers (Alouatta pigra) via 2 different group-specific enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). 11-oxoetiocholanolone EIAs are suited to assess the stress response of black howlers via fecal glucocorticoid metabolites. Levels of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites increased after we applied a stressor, i.e. anesthesia, reaching peak concentrations 24–96 h poststressor. Both basal and stress-induced fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels showed individual variations. The increase of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites after the stressor (paralleling increases in serum) indicates that one can effectively measure adrenocortical activity in Alouatta pigra via these 2 enzyme immunoassays. However, it is important to consider individual variations in the excretion of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites when planning field endocrinological research on Alouatta pigra. Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite excretion takes 1–3 d poststressor depending on the individual. Further, there is an important individual variability in the concentrations of glucocorticoid metabolites, which might reflect differences in stress reactivity or fecal glucocorticoid metabolite metabolism and excretion.     

Interspecific interaction and predator avoidance behavior in response to tayra (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eira barbara</Emphasis>) by mantled howler monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta palliata</Emphasis>)

This paper reports the response of one howler monkey group (Alouatta palliata) to a group of potential predators, the tayra (Eira barbara). The apparently successful predator avoidance behavior of the monkeys was recorded in detail. We observed a group of four adult tayras moving around theAlouatta group displaying a species-typical aggressive behavioral pattern. The two adult females of the howler group successfully chased the tayras away by repeatedly moving closer to the mustelids and even following them until the predators moved off.     

Factors Influencing the Reproductive Success of Female Black Howlers (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis>)

Measuring reproductive success is necessary to determine an organism's fitness, and thus, to address evolutionary processes. In this study we determined the effects of social, ecological, and individual attributes on the reproductive success of black howlers (Alouatta pigra) measured through infant survival and interbirth intervals (IBIs). From 2006 to 2012 we studied 29 black howler (A. pigra) females living in 11 groups in Campeche (Mexico), and recorded 82 births. We recorded group size and composition and the sex of infants during weekly surveys. We calculated a food availability index based on rainfall levels and on the size of preferred food resources. Daughters had a 30 % higher probability of surviving than sons, and the survival of the latter was positively related to food availability. IBI decreased when the first infant in the interval died, and when considering only IBIs in which the first infant survived, IBIs were longer following the birth of a daughter. These results suggest that, even if the production of daughters reduces reproductive output due to longer IBIs, female black howlers may still accrue higher reproductive success through their daughters due to differences between sexes in survival.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of callus cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crataegus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aronia</Emphasis>

A genetic transformation system has been developed for callus cells of Crataegus aronia using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Callus culture was established from internodal stem segments incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5 mg l⁻¹ Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg l⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA). In order to optimize the callus culture system with respect to callus growth and coloration, different types and concentrations of plant growth regulators were tested. Results indicated that the best average fresh weight of red colored callus was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 1.5 mg l⁻¹ kinetin (Kin) (callus maintenance medium). Callus cells were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium harboring the binary plasmid pCAMBIA1302 carrying the mgfp5 and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) genes conferring green fluorescent protein (GFP) activity and hygromycin resistance, respectively. Putative transgenic calli were obtained 4 weeks after incubation of the co-cultivated explants onto maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⁻¹ hygromycin. Molecular analysis confirmed the integration of the transgenes in transformed callus. To our knowledge, this is the first time to report an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in Crataegus aronia.     

Revision of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis> species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccanthera</Emphasis> subsection <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis>

A revision of Penstemon sect. Saccanthera subsect. Serrulati includes a new species (P. salmonensis), a new variety (P. triphyllus var. infernalis), and the elevation of a subspecies to species (P. curtiflorus), bringing the total number of species to eight, which are keyed and described, complete with nomenclature and type citations.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.     

New combinations and typifications in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bistorta</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Persicaria</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polygonum,</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rumex</Emphasis> (Polygonaceae)

New combinations are proposed in anticipation of the Polygonaceae treatment in the forthcoming volume of Intermountain Flora: Polygonum kelloggii var. esotericum, P. kelloggii var. watsonii , Rumex densiflorus var. pycnanthus , R. salicifolius var. utahensis, and R. occidentalis var. tomentellus. Typifications are proposed to facilitate ongoing studies in Polygonaceae and to maintain current usage.     

An <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hieracium</Emphasis> mutant, <Emphasis Type="Italic">loss of</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">apomeiosis 1</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">loa1</Emphasis>) is defective in the initiation of apomixis

Asexual seed formation (apomixis) in Hieracium aurantiacum occurs by mitotic embryo sac formation without prior meiosis in ovules (apomeiosis), followed by fertilization-independent embryo and endosperm development. Sexual reproduction begins first in Hieracium ovules with megaspore mother cell (MMC) formation. Apomixis initiates with the enlargement of somatic cells, termed aposporous initial (AI) cells, near sexual cells. AI cells grow towards sexually programmed cells undergoing meiosis, which degrade as the dividing nuclei of AIs obscure and displace them. Following Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of an aneuploid Hieracium aurantiacum apomict, a somaclonal mutant designated “loss of apomeiosis 1” (loa1) was recovered, which had significantly lost the ability to form apomictic seed. Maternal apomictic progeny were rare and low levels of germinable seedlings were primarily derived from meiotically derived eggs. Cytological analysis revealed defects in AI formation and function in loa1. Somatic cells enlarged some distance away from sexual cells and unlike AI cells, these expanded away from sexual cells without nuclear division. Surprisingly, many accumulated callose in the walls, a marker associated with meiotically specified cells. These defective AI (DAI) cells only had partial sexual identity as they failed to express a marker reflecting entry to meiosis that was easily detected in MMCs and they ultimately degraded. DAI cell formation did not lead to a compensatory increase in functional sexual embryo sacs, as collapse of meiotic embryo sacs was prevalent in the aneuploid somaclonal mutant. Positional cues that are important for AI cell differentiation, growth and fate may have been disrupted in the loa1 mutant and this is discussed. The authors Takashi Okada, Andrew S. Catanach and Susan D. Johnson made equal contributions to the data.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caenorhabditis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">briggsae</Emphasis> genome contains active <Emphasis Type="Italic">CbmaT1</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tcb1</Emphasis> transposons

The maT clade of transposons is a group of transposable elements intermediate in sequence and predicted protein structure to mariner and Tc transposons, with a distribution thus far limited to a few invertebrate species. We present evidence, based on searches of publicly available databases, that the nematode Caenorhabditis briggsae has several maT-like transposons, which we have designated as CbmaT elements, dispersed throughout its genome. We also describe two additional transposon sequences that probably share their evolutionary history with the CbmaT transposons. One resembles a fold back variant of a CbmaT element, with long (380-bp) inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that show a high degree (71%) of identity to CbmaT1. The other, which shares only the 26-bp ITR sequences with one of the CbmaT variants, is present in eight nearly identical copies, but does not have a transposase gene and may therefore be cross mobilised by a CbmaT transposase. Using PCR-based mobility assays, we show that CbmaT1 transposons are capable of excising from the C. briggsae genome. CbmaT1 excised approximately 500 times less frequently than Tcb1 in the reference strain AF16, but both CbmaT1 and Tcb1 excised at extremely high frequencies in the HK105 strain. The HK105 strain also exhibited a high frequency of spontaneous induction of unc-22 mutants, suggesting that it may be a mutator strain of C. briggsae.     

Sympatry between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta caraya</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta clamitans</Emphasis> and the rediscovery of free-ranging potential hybrids in Southern Brazil

Records of sympatry between Alouatta caraya and A. clamitans are rare despite their extensive range overlap. An example of their current sympatry and the rediscovery of free-ranging potential hybrids of A. caraya and A. clamitans in the forests of the Upper Paraná River, Southern Brazil, are reported in this paper. Eight groups were observed in the study area: five monospecific groups of A. caraya, two of A. clamitans, and a group containing two adult males and two adult females of A. caraya and a sub-adult male and two adult females identified as Alouatta sp. The color of the last three individuals was a mosaic between the two species; this is consistent with previously described variations in museum specimens collected in the Paraná River in the 1940s that had been identified as potential hybrids. The results from this study emphasize the need for scientific studies in the region of the Ilha Grande National Park, one of the few regions in the Paraná River that currently harbors both howler species. Contribution number 1637 of the Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Caixa Postal 19020, 81531-980, Curitiba, Paraná, Brasil.     

Prevalence,intensity and associated factor analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tropilaelaps</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mercedesae</Emphasis> infesting <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellifera</Emphasis> in China

Tropilaelaps mercedesae is a serious ectoparasite of Apis mellifera in China. The aim of this study was to investigate the infestation rates and intensity of T. mercedesae in A. mellifera in China, and to explore the relative importance of climate, district, management practices and beekeeper characteristics that are assumed to be associated with the intensity of T. mercedesae. Of the 410 participating apiaries, 379 apiaries were included in analyses of seasonal infestation rates and 352 apiaries were included in multivariable regression analysis. The highest infestation rate (86.3%) of T. mercedesae was encountered in autumn, followed by summer (66.5%), spring (17.2%) and winter (14.8%). In autumn, 28.9% (93) of the infested apiaries were in the north (including the northeast and northwest of China), 71.1% (229) were in the central and south (including east, southeast and southwest China), and 306 apiaries (82.9%) were co-infested by both T. mercedesae and Varroa. Multivariable regression analysis showed that geographical location, season, royal jelly collection and Varroa infestation were the factors that influence the intensity of T. mercedesae. The influence of beekeeper’s education, time of beekeeping, operation size, and hive migration on the intensity of T. mercedesa was not statistically significant. This study provided information about the establishment of the linkage of the environment and the parasite and could lead to better timing and methods of control.     

A new methanol assimilating yeast, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ogataea</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">parapolymorpha</Emphasis>, the ascosporic state of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">parapolymorpha</Emphasis>

Ogataea parapolymorpha sp. n. (NRRL YB-1982, CBS 12304, type strain), the ascosporic state of Candida parapolymorpha, is described. The species appears homothallic, assimilates methanol as is typical of most Ogataea species and forms hat-shaped ascospores in asci that become deliquescent. O. parapolymorpha is closely related to Ogataea angusta and Ogataea polymorpha. The three species can be resolved from gene sequence analyses but are unresolved from fermentation and growth reactions that are typically used for yeast identification. On the basis of multiple isolates, O. angusta is known only from California, USA, in association with Drosophila and Aulacigaster flies, O. parapolymorpha is predominantly associated with insect frass from trees in the eastern USA but O. polymorpha has been isolated from various substrates in the USA, Brazil, Spain and Costa Rica.     

In planta transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Notocactus scopa</Emphasis> cv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Soonjung</Emphasis> by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>

Notocactus scopa cv. Soonjung was subjected to in planta Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation with vacuum infiltration, pin-pricking, and a combination of the two methods. The pin-pricking combined with vacuum infiltration (20-30 cmHg for 15 min) resulted in a transformation efficiency of 67-100%, and the expression of the uidA and nptII genes was detected in transformed cactus. The established in planta transformation technique generated a transgenic cactus with higher transformation efficiency, shortened selection process, and stable gene expression via asexual reproduction. All of the results showed that the in planta transformation method utilized in the current study provided an efficient and time-saving procedure for the delivery of genes into the cactus genome, and that this technique can be applied to other asexually reproducing succulent plant species.     

Predicted and verified distributions of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles geoffroyi</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta palliata</Emphasis> in Oaxaca,Mexico

Primate conservation requires a better knowledge of the distributions and statuses of populations in both large areas of habitat and in areas for which we currently have no information. We focused on spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) and howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. This Mexican state has protected large tracts of forest, and has historical records for both primates, although very little is known about them. To update our knowledge of the distributions of these primates and identify potential areas in which they are present, we modeled their geographic distributions by characterizing their ecological niches using the genetic algorithm for rule-set production (GARP), performed interviews and carried out field surveys. The predicted distributions, surveys and interviews indicate that the distributions of these primates are restricted to northeastern Oaxaca. The results suggest that spider monkeys occupy a wider area and elevational range than howler monkeys. Throughout that range there is a wide variety of suitable habitats for these primates. Most of the sites where monkeys were recorded in the field are not officially protected and there was evidence of hunting and habitat destruction. It is important to improve protection, economic alternatives and environmental education as we move towards an integral solution for the conservation of these species. Validation of the GARP model was done for A. geoffroyi, since we had obtained enough field data for this species; this validation indicated that the predicted distribution of the species was statistically better than expected by chance. Hence, ecological niche modeling is a useful approach when performing an initial assessment to identify distribution patterns, detecting suitable areas for future exploration, and for conservation planning. Our findings provide an improved basis for primate conservation and productive fieldwork in Oaxaca.