Ryanodine受体的功能结构和调节因子

Ryanodine受体(ryanodine receptor,Ry R)是位于细胞内内质网/肌浆网膜上的钙离子释放通道蛋白。Ry R是由四个足状结构的亚单位组成的同源四聚体,每个亚单位大于550 k Da,四聚体的总分子量超过2 MDa,是迄今发现的内质网/肌浆网膜上最大的离子通道。哺乳动物有三种类型的Ry R,其中Ry R1主要分布在骨骼肌中,Ry R2首先发现于心肌,Ry R3主要在脑中有较多分布。Ry R钙离子释放通道在肌肉收缩、突触传递、激素分泌、蛋白折叠和程控性凋亡以及坏死等一系列以细胞功能为基础的生理过程中起着极其重要的作用,因而近些年在医学生物学和药学应用上都有极大的进展。该文就Ry R在机体中的分布、功能结构和调节因子等进行了介绍,其蛋白调节因子二氢吡啶受体(dihydropyridine receptor,DHPR)、钙调蛋白(Calmodulin)、隐钙素(calsequestrin)、FKBP(FK506-binding protein)家族蛋白和小分子调节因子咖啡因、离子等都是Ry R复合体行使细胞生理功能必不可少的因素。     

Ryanodine受体和内源性调节蛋白的相互作用

Ryanodine受体(RyR)是细胞内分子量最大的离子通道,在调节各种细胞内钙信号转导方面扮演着重要的角色。在骨骼肌中,RyR和双氢吡啶受体共同参与肌细胞的兴奋-收缩偶联。同时,一些内源性蛋白(包括FK结合蛋白、钙调素、钙结合蛋白、junctin和triadin等)通过不同的方式,在不同的阶段与RyR结合,形成一个复杂的调控网络,协助RyR发挥正常生理功能,实现结构与功能的统一。     

Ca2+对骨骼肌钙释放通道的调节

钙释放通道（calcium release channel）又称Ryanodine受体（RyR）,是细胞内质网膜上介导细胞内钙信号转导的离子通道。RyR1在骨骼肌细胞的兴奋-收缩偶联过程中起重要作用,是肌质网快速释放Ca^2＋的通道。许多调节因素,如一些内源性蛋白（FK结合蛋白、钙调素、钙结合蛋白）和一些离子（Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋）,通过不同的作用位点与RyR1结合,调控RyR1的结构与功能。研究表明,Ca^2＋是众多调节RyR1因素中的核心成分和前提条件,其对RyR1的结构与功能有重要的调控作用。     

钙稳态调节蛋白2 Q87A突变增加抑郁易感性

钙稳态调节蛋白2（calcium homeostasis modulator 2,Calhm2）参与钙离子活动和ATP释放的调控. 本实验室的前期工作已经证实,Calhm2可以介导星形胶质细胞ATP的释放,在抑郁症的发生发展中起到重要作用. 为了进一步探究Calhm2在抑郁症发生发展中的分子机制,本文首先预测了Calhm2的ATP结合位点,即位于第87位点的谷氨酰胺（Q87）,并将其突变为丙氨酸（A）,建立了一个携带calhm2突变（Q87A）的小鼠品系. 随后,通过对原代星形胶质细胞的胞内和胞外ATP检测,发现Calhm2 Q87A突变导致星形胶质细胞ATP的释放下降;此外,通过对小鼠大脑海马切片的ATP检测,发现Calhm2 Q87A突变小鼠海马组织的ATP释放较正常小鼠下降;最后,通过给予慢性温和不可预知应激（chronic unpredictable mild stress,CUMS）来诱发小鼠抑郁样行为,发现Calhm2 Q87A突变小鼠抑郁样行为相对野生型小鼠表现得更为严重. 综上所述,本文发现Q87位点对Calhm2介导的星形胶质细胞ATP释放发挥重要作用,该位点的突变增加了外界压力刺激诱导抑郁样行为的易感性,进一步明确了Calhm2蛋白在抑郁症发生发展中的分子机制,为抑郁症相关疾病的诊断和治疗提供了新的理论基础.     

不同功能状态的兔骨骼肌ryanodine受体的原子力显微镜研究

用原子力显微镜观察了外源性磷脂对兔骨骼肌ryanodine受体/钙释放通道(RyR1)结构的影响, 并且测定了有外源性磷脂的RyR1在不同功能状态时高度与弹性的变化. 结果表明: 有外源性磷脂的RyR1能更好地保持其完整的结构; AMP和Ca²⁺共同作用使其Young模量值增加, 而表观高度不变. 但是, 当用其他激动剂或抑制剂作用时, RyR1高度和Young模量值没有显著变化.     

突触前代谢型谷氨酸受体调节神经递质的释放

谷氨酸通过激活离子型受体（iGluR)介导快速兴奋性突触传递,参与脑内几乎所有生理过程。谷氨酸过量释放可导致与脑缺血,缺氧及变性疾病有关的兴奋毒作用,最终引起神经元的死亡。代谢型谷氨酸受体（mGluRs)是一个与G－蛋白偶联的受体家族,分三型共八个亚型。其中Ⅱ和Ⅲ型mGluRs主要位于突触前,发挥对谷氨酸释放的负反馈调节。Ⅲ型mGluRs中的mGluR7位于谷氨酸能末梢突触前膜的活性区,发挥自身受体的作用,对正常情况下突触传递过程的谷氨酸释放进行负反馈调节;而属于Ⅱ型的mGluR2及属于Ⅲ型的mGluR4和mGluR8,则位于远离突有膜活性区的外突触区,因而正常突触传递过程中释放的谷氨酸量不能激活它们。只有在突触传递增强的情况下才被激活,抑制递质的释放。国外,mGluRs还分布在GABA能纤维末梢,通过突触前机制抑制GABA的释放。对突触前膜受体尤其是位于外突触区的mGluRs受体的研究,将有可能开发出理想的工具药,从而预防和阻止谷氨酸过量释放引起的神经毒及神经元的死亡。     

抗利尿激素对肾集合管水通道蛋白的调节

肾集合管主细胞管腔膜AQP2水通道蛋白数量受抗利尿激素（ADH）的调节。当血浆ADH为零值时,管腔膜AQP2数量减少,集合管水通透性降低。当血浆ADH水平升高时,管腔膜AQP2数量增加,集合管水通透性升高。     

β-肾上腺素受体调节蛋白及其功能

血管疾病成为威胁人类健康头号杀手,心血管受体在心血管疾病的发生、发展及预防和治疗中具有举足轻重的地位。β-肾上腺素受体作为G蛋白偶联受体家族的成员,是心血管药物最重要的靶点之一。β-肾上腺素受体阻滞剂被认为是继洋地黄后药物防治心脏疾病的最伟大突破,其在心血管领域的研究和应用一直是被关注的热点。2012年度诺贝尔化学奖再次授予了β-肾上腺素受体的研究。随着研究的深入,人们发现β-肾上腺素受体接受着细胞内调控蛋白的精密调控,不同调控蛋白介导着受体不同的生理信号通路和病理性信号通路。基于这些发现,近年来提出了受体功能选择性的配体药物,这也将成为未来药物的研究方向。本文综述了β-肾上腺素受体调节蛋白及相关信号通路及功能。     

Flux regulation of cardiac ryanodine receptor channels

The cardiac type 2 ryanodine receptor (RYR2) is activated by Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺ release (CICR). The inherent positive feedback of CICR is well controlled in cells, but the nature of this control is debated. Here, we explore how the Ca²⁺ flux (lumen-to-cytosol) carried by an open RYR2 channel influences its own cytosolic Ca²⁺ regulatory sites as well as those on a neighboring channel. Both flux-dependent activation and inhibition of single channels were detected when there were super-physiological Ca²⁺ fluxes (>3 pA). Single-channel results indicate a pore inhibition site distance of 1.2 ± 0.16 nm and that the activation site on an open channel is shielded/protected from its own flux. Our results indicate that the Ca²⁺ flux mediated by an open RYR2 channel in cells (∼0.5 pA) is too small to substantially regulate (activate or inhibit) the channel carrying it, even though it is sufficient to activate a neighboring RYR2 channel.     

Molecular regulation of cardiac ryanodine receptor ion channel

The release of Ca(2+) ions from intracellular stores is a key step in a wide variety of cellular functions. In striated muscle, the release of Ca(2+) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) leads to muscle contraction. Ca(2+) release occurs through large, high-conductance Ca(2+) release channels, also known as ryanodine receptors (RyRs) because they bind the plant alkaloid ryanodine with high affinity and specificity. The RyRs are isolated as 30S protein complexes comprised of four 560 kDa RyR2 subunits and four 12 kDa FK506 binding protein (FKBP12) subunits. Multiple endogenous effector molecules and posttranslational modifications regulate the RyRs. This review focuses on current research toward understanding the control of the isolated cardiac Ca(2+) release channel/ryanodine receptor (RyR2) by Ca(2+), calmodulin, thiol oxidation/reduction and nitrosylation, and protein phosphorylation.     

Defective regulation of the ryanodine receptor induces hypertrophy in cardiomyocytes

Recent studies on cardiac hypertrophy animal model suggest that inter-domain interactions within the ryanodine receptor (RyR2) become defective concomitant with the development of hypertrophy (e.g. de-stabilization of the interaction between N-terminal and central domains of RyR2; T. Oda, M. Yano, T. Yamamoto, T. Tokuhisa, S. Okuda, M. Doi, T. Ohkusa, Y. Ikeda, S. Kobayashi, N. Ikemoto, M. Matsuzaki, Defective regulation of inter-domain interactions within the ryanodine receptor plays a key role in the pathogenesis of heart failure, Circulation 111 (2005) 3400-3410). To determine if de-stabilization of the inter-domain interaction in fact causes hypertrophy, we introduced DPc10 (a peptide corresponding to the G²⁴⁶⁰-P²⁴⁹⁵ region of RyR2, which is known to de-stabilize the N-terminal/central domain interaction) into rat neonatal cardiomyocytes by mediation of peptide carrier BioPORTER. After incubation for 24 h the peptide induced hypertrophy, as evidenced by significant increase in cell size and [³H]leucine uptake. K201 or dantrolene, the reagents known to correct the de-stabilized inter-domain interaction to a normal mode, prevented the DPc10-induced hypertrophy. These results suggest that disruption of the normal N-terminal/central inter-domain interaction within the RyR2 is a causative mechanism of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.     

Lobe-dependent regulation of ryanodine receptor type 1 by calmodulin

Calmodulin activates the skeletal muscle Ca(2+) release channel RYR1 at nm Ca(2+) concentrations and inhibits the channel at microm Ca(2+) concentrations. Using a deletion mutant of calmodulin, we demonstrate that amino acids 2-8 are required for high affinity binding of calmodulin to RYR1 at both nm and microm Ca(2+) concentrations and are required for maximum inhibition of the channel at microm Ca(2+) concentrations. In contrast, the addition of three amino acids to the N terminus of calmodulin increased the affinity for RYR1 at both nm and microm Ca(2+) concentrations, but destroyed its functional effects on RYR1 at nm Ca(2+). Using both full-length RYR1 and synthetic peptides, we demonstrate that the calmodulin-binding site on RYR1 is likely to be noncontiguous, with the C-terminal lobe of both apocalmodulin and Ca(2+)-calmodulin binding to amino acids between positions 3614 and 3643 and the N-terminal lobe binding at sites that are not proximal in the primary sequence. Ca(2+) binding to the C-terminal lobe of calmodulin converted it from an activator to an inhibitor, but an interaction with the N-terminal lobe was required for a maximum effect on RYR1. This interaction apparently depends on the native sequence or structure of the first few amino acids at the N terminus of calmodulin.     

Novel receptor kinases involved in growth regulation

The growth of plant cells involves a constant adjustment of synthesis and rearrangement of cell wall polymers. Recently, three plasma membrane-bound receptor kinases related to CrRLK1 have been shown to be involved in the negative control of cell growth in different contexts. THESEUS1 is activated in mutants deficient for cellulose and may act as a cell wall integrity sensor inhibiting cell elongation. FERONIA is polarly localized in synergid cells of the female gametophyte and is required for growth cessation of compatible pollen tubes and subsequent delivery of sperm cells. AmRLK is involved in the control of the polar conical outgrowth of epidermal cells of Antirrhinum petals. The conservation of both extracellular and kinase domains suggests that the three receptors bind to related ligands and have similar cellular outputs, which may involve the production of reactive oxygen species.     

S100A1 and calmodulin regulation of ryanodine receptor in striated muscle

The release of Ca²⁺ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through ryanodine receptor calcium release channels represents the critical step linking electrical excitation to muscular contraction in the heart and skeletal muscle (excitation–contraction coupling). Two small Ca²⁺ binding proteins, S100A1 and calmodulin, have been demonstrated to bind and regulate ryanodine receptor in vitro. This review focuses on recent work that has revealed new information about the endogenous roles of S100A1 and calmodulin in regulating skeletal muscle excitation–contraction coupling. S100A1 and calmodulin bind to an overlapping domain on the ryanodine receptor type 1 to tune the Ca²⁺ release process, and thereby regulate skeletal muscle function. We also discuss past, current and future work surrounding the regulation of ryanodine receptors by calmodulin and S100A1 in both cardiac and skeletal muscle, and the implications for excitation–contraction coupling.     

Mechanism of calsequestrin regulation of single cardiac ryanodine receptor in normal and pathological conditions

Release of Ca²⁺ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) drives contractile function of cardiac myocytes. Luminal Ca²⁺ regulation of SR Ca²⁺ release is fundamental not only in physiology but also in physiopathology because abnormal luminal Ca²⁺ regulation is known to lead to arrhythmias, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), and/or sudden cardiac arrest, as inferred from animal model studies. Luminal Ca²⁺ regulates ryanodine receptor (RyR)2-mediated SR Ca²⁺ release through mechanisms localized inside the SR; one of these involves luminal Ca²⁺ interacting with calsequestrin (CASQ), triadin, and/or junctin to regulate RyR2 function.CASQ2-RyR2 regulation was examined at the single RyR2 channel level. Single RyR2s were incorporated into planar lipid bilayers by the fusion of native SR vesicles isolated from either wild-type (WT), CASQ2 knockout (KO), or R33Q-CASQ2 knock-in (KI) mice. KO and KI mice have CPVT-like phenotypes. We show that CASQ2(WT) action on RyR2 function (either activation or inhibition) was strongly influenced by the presence of cytosolic MgATP. Function of the reconstituted CASQ2(WT)–RyR2 complex was unaffected by changes in luminal free [Ca²⁺] (from 0.1 to 1 mM). The inhibition exerted by CASQ2(WT) association with the RyR2 determined a reduction in cytosolic Ca²⁺ activation sensitivity. RyR2s from KO mice were significantly more sensitive to cytosolic Ca²⁺ activation and had significantly longer mean open times than RyR2s from WT mice. Sensitivity of RyR2s from KI mice was in between that of RyR2 channels from KO and WT mice. Enhanced cytosolic RyR2 Ca²⁺ sensitivity and longer RyR2 open times likely explain the CPVT-like phenotype of both KO and KI mice.     

unc-68 encodes a ryanodine receptor involved in regulating C. elegans body-wall muscle contraction

Striated muscle contraction is elicited by the release of stored calcium ions through ryanodine receptor channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. ryr-1 is a C. elegans ryanodine receptor homologue that is expressed in body-wall muscle cells used for locomotion. Using genetic methods, we show that ryr-1 is the previously identified locus unc-68. First, transposon-induced deletions within ryr-1 are alleles of unc-68. Second, transformation of unc-68 mutants with ryr-1 genomic DNA results in rescue of the Unc phenotype. unc-68 mutants move poorly, exhibiting an incomplete flaccid paralysis, yet have normal muscle ultrastructure. The mutants are insensitive to the paralytic effects of ryanodine, and lack detectable ryanodine-binding activity. The Unc-68 phenotype suggests that ryanodine receptors are not essential for excitation- contraction coupling in nematodes, but act to amplify a (calcium) signal that is sufficient for contraction.     

Molecular mechanisms involved in progesterone receptor regulation of uterine function

The ovarian steroid hormone progesterone is a major regulator of uterine function. The actions of this hormone is mediated through its cognate receptor, the progesterone receptor, Pgr. Ablation of the Pgr has shown that this receptor is critical for all female reproductive functions including the ability of the uterus to support and maintain the development of the implanting mouse embryo. High density DNA microarray analysis has identified direct and indirect targets of Pgr action. One of the targets of Pgr action is a member of the Hedgehog morphogen Indian Hedgehog, Ihh. Ihh and members of the Hh signaling cascade show a coordinate expression pattern in the mouse uterus during the preimplantation period of pregnancy. The expression of Ihh and its receptor Patched-1, Ptc1, as well as, down stream targets of Ihh-Ptch1 signaling, such as the orphan nuclear receptor COUP-TF II show that this morphogen pathway mediates communication between the uterine epithelial and stromal compartments. The members of the Ihh signaling axis may function to coordinate the proliferation, vascularization and differentiation of the uterine stroma during pregnancy. This analysis demonstrates that progesterone regulates uterine function in the mouse by coordinating the signals from the uterine epithelium to stroma in the preimplantation mouse uterus.