豆科植物根瘤中非共生的内生菌遗传多样性研究进展

在豆科植物与根瘤菌之间结合形成的固氮共生体中,其典型的特征是由特定的微共生体诱导形成的根瘤或茎瘤,除了根瘤菌外,在根瘤中同样也分离出多种与根瘤菌共生固氮无关的内生菌类群,而且根瘤菌与内生菌通常可以共存于同一个根瘤内是普遍存在的客观现象,这些非共生的内生菌生活史的一部分存在于根瘤内且不会引起植物发病,但有关它们的生态学作用还知之甚少,由于其生态上的重要性,近年来对该现象的研究不断深入.就近年来根瘤中隶属于变形菌门,放线菌门、后壁菌门的非共生的内生菌遗传多样性所取得的最新研究结果进行了总结,并介绍了根瘤中相关内生菌多样性研究的新进展.同时,指出了该研究领域存在的问题,并对未来相关研究方向做了展望.     

Symbiotic Legume Nodules Employ Both Rhizobial Exo- and Endo-Hydrogenases to Recycle Hydrogen Produced by Nitrogen Fixation

Background

In symbiotic legume nodules, endosymbiotic rhizobia (bacteroids) fix atmospheric N₂, an ATP-dependent catalytic process yielding stoichiometric ammonium and hydrogen gas (H₂). While in most legume nodules this H₂ is quantitatively evolved, which loss drains metabolic energy, certain bacteroid strains employ uptake hydrogenase activity and thus evolve little or no H₂. Rather, endogenous H₂ is efficiently respired at the expense of O₂, driving oxidative phosphorylation, recouping ATP used for H₂ production, and increasing the efficiency of symbiotic nodule N₂ fixation. In many ensuing investigations since its discovery as a physiological process, bacteroid uptake hydrogenase activity has been presumed a single entity.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Azorhizobium caulinodans, the nodule endosymbiont of Sesbania rostrata stems and roots, possesses both orthodox respiratory (exo-)hydrogenase and novel (endo-)hydrogenase activities. These two respiratory hydrogenases are structurally quite distinct and encoded by disparate, unlinked gene-sets. As shown here, in S. rostrata symbiotic nodules, haploid A. caulinodans bacteroids carrying single knockout alleles in either exo- or-endo-hydrogenase structural genes, like the wild-type parent, evolve no detectable H₂ and thus are fully competent for endogenous H₂ recycling. Whereas, nodules formed with A. caulinodans exo-, endo-hydrogenase double-mutants evolve endogenous H₂ quantitatively and thus suffer complete loss of H₂ recycling capability. More generally, from bioinformatic analyses, diazotrophic microaerophiles, including rhizobia, which respire H₂ may carry both exo- and endo-hydrogenase gene-sets.

Conclusions/Significance

In symbiotic S. rostrata nodules, A. caulinodans bacteroids can use either respiratory hydrogenase to recycle endogenous H₂ produced by N₂ fixation. Thus, H₂ recycling by symbiotic legume nodules may involve multiple respiratory hydrogenases.     

Lack of DNA Homology between the Legume GLYCINE MAX and Its Symbiotic Rhizobium Bacteria

Any common genes of Glycine max and its symbiotic rhizobium bacteria 61A76 represent less than 0.6% of the bacterial genome. Thus, if any sizable exchange of DNA between host and symbiote occurs it must result in unstable DNA association which is lost with subsequent generations.     

植物内生细菌的生物薄膜(biofilm)

生物薄膜(biofilm)指微生物菌体互相黏附一起或附着到一些材料表面,并由胞外多聚物基质对其包埋的生长状态。生物薄膜是微生物形成的对生存环境(包括定殖宿主)相适应的结构。近年来随着人们对微生物与环境相互作用研究的日益重视,对生物薄膜的研究已经迅速发展起来。该文从植物内生细菌的角度,总结并论述了生物薄膜结构形成、生理生化性质、以及生物学功能等,并针对当前国内对生物薄膜概念使用不规范甚至不正确的问题,提出了自己的观点。     

Cyclic AMP in Rhizobia and Symbiotic Nodules

Cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) content of variouscultured rhizobia strains and tissues of legumes and non-leguminousplants was measured by enzyme immunoassays. Most rhizobia, culturedfor 44 to 165 h, contained cAMP ranging from 0.6 to 5 pmol mg^-1proteinexcept forAzorhizobium caulinodansORS571. The culture mediaalso contained varying amounts of cAMP depending on the strainof rhizobia.Azorhizobiumcells and their media contained no detectablecAMP. Nodules from most legumes and non-legumes had cAMP contentsranging from 2–70 pmol g^-1f.wt. However, nodules fromSesbaniarostrata,Crotalaria spectabilisandParasponia andersoniishowedundetectable cAMP levels, and those fromGlycine maxandVignaangularisoccasionally showed levels below the detection limit.The leaves of non-legumes mostly had cAMP levels below detectionlimit (approx. 1.0 pmol g^-1 f.wt), while the leaves ofa few legumes occasionally had detectable cAMP. The possiblerole of cAMP as a symbiotic signal is discussed. cAMP; legumes; modules; rhizobia; symbiosis     

Genetic Diversity, Symbiotic Evolution, and Proposed Infection Process of Bradyrhizobium Strains Isolated from Root Nodules of Aeschynomene americana L. in Thailand

The diversity of bacteria nodulating Aeschynomene americana L. in Thailand was determined from phenotypic characteristics and multilocus sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene and 3 housekeeping genes (dnaK, recA, and glnB). The isolated strains were nonphotosynthetic bacteria and were assigned to the genus Bradyrhizobium, in which B. yuanmingense was the dominant species. Some of the other species, including B. japonicum, B. liaoningense, and B. canariense, were minor species. These isolated strains were divided into 2 groups-nod-containing and divergent nod-containing strains-based on Southern blot hybridization and PCR amplification of nodABC genes. The divergent nod genes could not be PCR amplified and failed to hybridize nod gene probes designed from B. japonicum USDA110, but hybridized to probes from other bradyrhizobial strains under low-stringency conditions. The grouping based on sequence similarity of nod genes was well correlated with the grouping based on that of nifH gene, in which the nod-containing and divergent nod-containing strains were obviously distinguished. The divergent nod-containing strains and photosynthetic bradyrhizobia shared close nifH sequence similarity and an ability to fix nitrogen in the free-living state. Surprisingly, the strains isolated from A. americana could nodulate Aeschynomene plants that belong to different cross-inoculation (CI) groups, including A. afraspera and A. indica. This is the first discovery of bradyrhizobia (nonphotosynthetic and nod-containing strain) originating from CI group 1 nodulating roots of A. indica (CI group 3). An infection process used to establish symbiosis on Aeschynomene different from the classical one is proposed.     

Transport of Nitrate and Calcium into Legume Root Nodules

Nitrate transport into nodulated plants of soybean (Glycinemax), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and faba bean (Vicia faba)was investigated. Nitrate entering the root system of soybeandid not pass out of the vascular system into nodular tissuesin detectable quantities. On the other hand, nitrate could passfrom soil through the outer surface of nodules but did not penetratethe infected tissue. Similarly, nitrate was restricted to corticaltissues of cowpea and faba bean. Thus, nitrate cannot inhibitnitrogen fixation as a result of reduction to nitrite by nitratereductase within the bacteroid zone. These results are, however,consistent with an effect of nitrate on an oxygen diffusionresistance located in the nodule cortex. Unlike nitrate, measurable quantities of ⁴⁵calcium were transportedvia the xylem into infected and cortical tissues of soybeannodules: it also passed from the soil into the free space ofthe nodule cortex. Key words: Nitrate, legume nodules, calcium     

水稻内生固氮细菌的生化特性及其对烟草和玉米的侵染

对水稻内生固氮菌N1(短小芽孢杆菌,Bacillus pumilus)、N2(阴沟肠杆菌,Enterobacter cloacae)和N3(鹑鸡肠球菌,Enterococcus gallinarum)的一些生化特性及其对烟草和玉米的侵染进行了研究.采用三亲交配法将标记基因nifH-lacZ、 nifHDK-lacZ和gfp分别导入到固氮菌中,用携带标记基因的固氮菌分别接种烟草云烟85和玉米吉甜6号,对感染固氮菌的烟草和玉米材料进行β-半乳糖苷酶组织化学染色和激光共聚焦扫描显微镜、透射电子显微镜和扫描电子显微镜观察.光学显微镜和电子显微镜观察结果表明在接菌的烟草和玉米部分根细胞中和细胞间隙都发现了固氮菌,在接菌的玉米茎的维管组织细胞中也发现了固氮菌,推测固氮菌从玉米根开始向上移动.接种固氮菌N3的玉米与对照相比,在鲜重上提高了18.53%.     

昆虫病原线虫的共生细菌

昆虫病原线虫与其共生细菌二者互惠共生 :共生细菌需要昆虫病原线虫作为载体以寄生寄主昆虫并做为自己的营养来源 ,而昆虫病原线则需要依靠共生细菌来杀死昆虫。综述了共生细菌的病原作用、抗菌作用与杀虫作用 ,评述了共生细菌的基因工程进展 ,讨论了昆虫共生细菌在昆虫病原线虫致病性的作用。     

Microelectrode Measurements of Hydrogen Concentrations and Gradients in Legume Nodules

This paper describes the construction and operation of H₂ specificmicroelectrodes and their application to measurements of H₂concentrations, H₂ gradients and H₂ inhibition of N₂-fixationin legume root nodules. Electrode construction was similar to that of O₂ specific microelectrodespreviously reported. They comprise an outer casing drawn toa 2–20 µm tip plugged with silicone rubber and aconcentric inner electrode made from glass coated platinum wire.The exposed tip of the Pt wire was placed close to the siliconeplug and polarized positively at 0?4 V with respect to an internalAg reference electrode. With an internal electrolyte of KC1/HC1current flow through the electrode was proportional to H₂ concentrationand independent of CO₂ and O₂. With appropriate amplificationand screening the detection limit for this system was 0?0001atm H₂ (4?0 µmol m^–3). Within newly detached nodulesof Hup^–ve symbioses of soyabean, pea and clover H₂ concentrationvaried from 0?009 to 0?014atm compared with 0?021 atm in lupinnodules. In nodules formed by the Hup^–ve soyabean/RCR3442symbiosis internal pH₂ increased from 0?012 atm to 0?09 atmwhen external pO₂ was raised to 0?60 atm. Hydrogen could notbe detected within nodules of the Hup^+ve Clarke/RCR3407 symbiosiseven when N₂ in the gas phase was replaced with Ar and externalpO₂ was increased to 0?60 atm. An assessment of H₂ inhibition of nitrogen fixation in the soyabean(Clarke/RCR3442) symbioses involved measurements of H₂ productionat increasing internal H₂ levels, induced by stepped increasesin gas phase H₂ concentration. The initial relative efficiencyof 0?66 (calculated from the pH₂ of nodules exposed to air andAr/O₂ mixtures) started to decrease at an internal pH₂ of 0?02to 0?03 atm and fell by 80% to 0?18 at an internal pH₂ of 0?1atm. This threshold value for inhibition is above the measuredmean H₂ concentration for this symbiosis of 0?01 atm. Hydrogen gradients through the nodule showed a sharp increasein the region of the inner cortex, which was reciprocal to adecrease in O₂ concentration, and a shallow gradient throughthe infected zone. These results indicate that the inner airspaces in the nodule are interconnected and confirm that thebarrier to O₂ diffusion is located in the inner cortex. Key words: Root nodules, hydrogen, hydrogenase, oxygen     

Oxygen Diffusion Pathways and Nitrogen Fixation in Legume Root Nodules

The theoretical analysis presented in this paper suggests thatthe nature of the diffusion pathway from the surface of a noduleto the infected zone depends on the morphology of the nodule;in particular the cross-sectional area of the intercellularspaces in the inner cortex. If the diffusion barrier containscontinuous pathways there will be no pressure difference betweenthe atmosphere and the infected zone. The conditions under whichthe intercellular spaces of the inner cortex could be air-filled,water-filled, or a combination of both are explored. An experimentto resolve this issue is suggested. Information obtained usingcryo-scanning electron microscopy and oxygen electrode datahave been used to illustrate various points. Expressions arederived for the diffusion resistance of the nodule and its componentparts. To provoke further discussion a simple mechanism forthe control of diffusion is described in general terms. Oxygen, diffusion resistance, nodule, nitrogen fixation, soybean, Glycine max. (L.) Merr. cv. Fiskeby V, Trifolium repens L. cv. Blanca, lucerne, Medicago saliva L. cv. Europe     

Catalase Activity of Nodules in the Ureide- and Amide-transporting Legume Plants

The relations of catalase activity to the efficiency of symbiotic dinitrogen fixation and leghemoglobin (Lb) content were investigated in roots and nodules of several legume plant species together with the catalase distribution between the inner bacteroidal and the outer cortical nodule tissues. The catalase activity in the nodules exceeded that of the roots of the amide- and ureide-synthesizing plant species by one and two orders of magnitude. During the growth period, catalase activity and Lb content changed in parallel and reached their highest levels early in the stage of flowering or fruit formation, depending on plant species. In the case of effective symbiosis, catalase activity in the nodules was 2.5–5 times higher than in the case of ineffective symbiosis. Catalase activity in the bacteroidal zone of the nodules was several times higher than that of the cortical tissue, and two nodule tissues differed in catalase activity more notably in the plant species exporting ureides. The authors suggest that high catalase activity in the nodules, especially in their bacteroidal zone, is essential for the efficient functioning of the symbiotic system of dinitrogen fixation in both ureide- and amide-transporting plants.     

Endophytic Occupation of Root Nodules and Roots of Melilotus dentatus by Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Agrobacterium strains have been frequently isolated from the root nodules of different legumes. Various possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain the existence of these bacteria in nodules, but there is no sufficient experimental evidence to support the estimations. In this work, we proved that the Agrobacterium strain CCBAU 81181, which was originally isolated from the root nodules of Onobrychis viciaefolia, and a symbiotic strain of Sinorhizobium meliloti CCBAU 10062 could coinhabit the root nodules of Melilotus dentatus. Analyses were performed by using a fluorescence marker, reisolation of bacteria from nodules, sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) of whole cellular proteins, and polymerase chain reaction amplification of symbiotic genes. The inoculation of A. tumefaciens CCBAU 81181 did not affect the growth and nodulation of plants. CCBAU 81181 and 24 other Agrobacterium strains isolated from nodules were incapable of nodulating on their original or alternative host and 22 strains of these strains were endophytes in the roots and stems of their hosts. Also, the tumor-inducing A. tumefaciens strains IAM 13129^T and C58 were found capable of entering the roots of Glycyrrhiza pallidiflora, but did not cause pathogenic symptoms. With these results, we conclude that A. tumefaciens strains could be endophytic bacteria in the roots, stems, and root nodules. This finding partially explains why Agrobacterium strains were frequently isolated from the surface-sterilized nodules.     

Characterization of the Resistance to Oxygen Diffusion in Legume Nodules

A method for characterizing the resistance to oxygen diffusionin legume nodules has been developed. This is based on the assumptionsthat diffusion can be described using a simple resistance analogueand that the respiratory response of the bacteriod-containingcells to external oxygen concentrations can be analysed as adiffusion-limited process. Applying this analysis to experimentaldata from infact white clover plants allowed the total diffusionresistance to be separated into (a) a minimum resistance and(b) the extent to which this resistance can be increased. Whenthe carbohydrate status of the nodules was reduced by dark treatments,the minimum diffusion resistance increased, and after 24–28h darkness equalled the maximum resistance. At the same timethe ability to control this resistance was lost. White clover, nitrogen fixation, oxygen diffusion, nodule respiration     

Diversity of Origin and Expansion Mode of Peribacteroid Membrane in Legume Nodules

Bacteroids, in numbers of two, three or more, in the legume nodules of Sesbania cannabina (Retz.) Pers., Glycine max (L.) Merr. and Pisum sativum L. were enclosed in each peribacteroid membrane (PBM). In view that PBM was formed synchronously with the bacteroid reproduction, the origin as well as the expansion of PBM ought to be in large scale in order to meet the need of the physiologic process of symbiotic nature. It was observed that in the same nodule sample there were kinds of modes of the PBM expansion, such as chimeric fusion between, or among the PBMs in which a protrusion of one PBM fit into a depression of another PBM, fusions of the PBM with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and its vesicles, with small vacuole membrane, etc. Cytochemical study indicated that PBM, plasma membrane, ER membrane, etc. possessed the same type of ATPase, and the PBM was structurally similar to the plasma membrane. Therefore, the PBM appears to be a mosaic membrane possessing features of the plasma membrane, ER membrane and vacuole membrane, etc. In final, the physiological significance of the diversity in the origin and expansion modes of the PBM was discussed.     

Phloem Glutamine and the Regulation of O2 Diffusion in Legume Nodules

The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that the N content or the composition of the phloem sap that supplies nodulated roots may play a role in the feedback regulation of nitrogenase activity by increasing nodule resistance to O2 diffusion. Treating shoots of lupin (Lupinus albus cv Manitoba) or soybean (Glycine max L. Merr. cv Maple Arrow) with 100 [mu]L L-1 NH3 caused a 1.3-fold (lupin) and 2.6-fold (soybean) increase in the total N content of phloem sap without altering its C content. The increase in phloem N was due primarily to a 4.8-fold (lupin) and 10.5-fold (soybean) increase in the concentration of glutamine N. In addition, there was a decline in both the apparent nitrogenase activity and total nitrogenase activity that began within 4 h and reached about 54% of its initial activity within 6 h of the start of the NH3 treatment. However, the potential nitrogenase activity values in the treated plants were not significantly different from those of the control plants. These results provide evidence that changes in the N composition of the phloem sap, particularly the glutamine content, may increase nodule resistance to O2 diffusion and, thereby, down-regulate nodule metabolism and nitrogenase activity by controlling the supply of O2 to the bacteria-infected cells.