Preparation of animals for use in the laboratory: issues and challenges for the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Preparation of animals is important for optimization of animal welfare as well as to minimize interanimal variation, thereby strengthening the quality of data for in vivo studies. These issues are important in the work of institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs), but they pose many challenges as well. This article provides IACUC members with a resource for use in determining whether and how preparation of animals for research affects the IACUC's responsibilities. The topics addressed are intended to serve as a starting point for consideration and discussion. Questions related to subject selection and acclimation of subjects to experimental housing and procedures are emphasized and should provide IACUC members with a framework for discussion of relevant questions. Guidelines are provided for promoting the acclimation of a number of species to experimental settings. Additional, potentially controversial points are also raised, including the effects on longitudinal data sets of changing subject preparation procedures. The roles of the IACUC in the research endeavor are multifaceted and continuously evolving. As empirical data are produced that affect additional aspects of animal care and use, it is important for these committees to be able to evaluate and, when appropriate, stimulate the implementation of improved procedures and strategies.     

Looking where it's hard to see: a case study documenting rare Eucyclogobius newberryi presence in a California lagoon

Environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis is increasingly used for biomonitoring and research of fish populations and communities by environmental resource managers and academic researchers. Although managers are much interested in expanding the use of eDNA as a survey technique, they are sceptical about both its utility (given that information is often limited to presence/absence of a species) and feasibility (given the need for proper laboratory facilities for sample processing). Nonetheless, under the right circumstances, eDNA analysis is cost-effective compared to many traditional aquatic survey methods and does not disturb habitat or harm the animals being surveyed. This article presents a case study in which eDNA analysis was successfully used to document the presence of a rare fish species in a waterway earmarked for restoration. The authors discuss the conditions that allowed this study to occur quickly and smoothly and speculate on how the goals of researchers and managers can be integrated for efficient and informative use of this tool.     

The ethics of intervening in animal behaviour for conservation

Conservation behaviour is a growing field that applies insights from the study of animal behaviour to address challenges in wildlife conservation and management. Conservation behaviour interventions often aim to manage specific behaviours of a species to solve conservation challenges. The field is often viewed as offering approaches that are less intrusive or harmful to animals than, for example, managing the impact of a problematic species by reducing its population size (frequently through lethal control). However, intervening in animal behaviour, even for conservation purposes, may still raise important ethical considerations. We discuss these issues and develop a framework and a decision support tool, to aid managers and researchers in evaluating the ethical considerations of conservation behaviour interventions against other options.     

Towards the conservation of freshwater fish: Iberian Rivers as an example of threats and management practices

The current freshwater fish fauna crisis is such that natural resource managers urgently need to identify priorities and understand the management consequences of actions aimed at maximizing the preservation of biodiversity. Freshwater research is often poorly linked to conservation ecology; and interdisciplinary studies illustrating examples of freshwater ecosystem conservation are scarce. The Iberian Peninsula has a long history of anthropogenic disturbance that has led to the poor conservation status of its ichthyofauna, with 52 % of species now catalogued as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable, according to UICN criteria. This paper gives an overview of the main threats (habitat degradation, hydrological alterations and exotic species) that have altered the function and connectivity of Iberian rivers. Case-study examples are provided to analyse the repercussions of these threats and the management actions planned or already performed in these systems. The interaction of many threats is responsible for native fish decline. However, freshwater managers and researchers should not let the trees prevent them from seeing the overall wood, when seeking to achieve practical solutions with the best balanced cost benefit and the collaboration of all ecosystem researchers and stakeholders. Conservation efforts should be focused on the preservation of ecological processes, in order to achieve the goals of the Water Framework Directive and guarantee the conservation of Iberian native fish species.     

Causes and consequences of lags in basic and applied research into feral wildlife ecology: the case for feral horses

The biomass of feral wildlife is eclipsing that of native wildlife in many parts of the world. Consequently, feral species are playing an increasingly important role in ecological community dynamics. Artificially selected life-history traits of wild but once domesticated species can elicit population dynamics that differ substantially from that of native species. Yet, we continue to lag in our understanding of the ecology and evolution of feral species with direct consequences to resource management and biodiversity conservation. In part, this is because basic and applied research into the ecology of feral wildlife is fraught with social and political challenges unique to science. Feral populations of companion animals or livestock, especially, can evoke strong emotional reactions among advocacy groups, particularly around issues of animal welfare and management policy. Managers tasked with controlling feral populations are often bound by social license, including legislative restrictions, incomparable to that of other wildlife, and harassment or litigation of researchers and managers is not uncommon. Further, research and management of feral species is often delegated to agricultural instead of wildlife government agencies with clear differences in mandate, staff education, and training. Using examples primarily from feral horses in North America, we show how scientists conducting research independent of the management process can find themselves placed between managers, advocates, and opponents of feral species, implicitly tasked with satisfying multiple and often contradictory interests of stakeholders, sometimes with direct and litigious interference. These barriers are exacerbated by inter-disciplinary tendencies to dismiss the importance of basic and applied ecological research into feral species, despite its relevance to sound decision-making. Feral species therefore possess politically and biologically facilitated asymmetries that favor persistence, growth, and expansion relative to native wildlife, while the timely study of these characteristics in nature continues to suffer from ideological opposition.     

Hearing in laboratory animals: strain differences and nonauditory effects of noise

Hearing in laboratory animals is a topic that traditionally has been the domain of the auditory researcher. However, hearing loss and exposure to various environmental sounds can lead to changes in multiple organ systems, making what laboratory animals hear of consequence for researchers beyond those solely interested in hearing. For example, several inbred mouse strains commonly used in biomedical research (e.g., C57BL/6, DBA/2, and BALB/c) experience a genetically determined, progressive hearing loss that can lead to secondary changes in systems ranging from brain neurochemistry to social behavior. Both researchers and laboratory animal facility personnel should be aware of both strain and species differences in hearing in order to minimize potentially confounding variables in their research and to aid in the interpretation of data. Independent of genetic differences, acoustic noise levels in laboratory animal facilities can have considerable effects on the inhabitants. A large body of literature describes the nonauditory impact of noise on the biology and behavior of various strains and species of laboratory animals. The broad systemic effects of noise exposure include changes in endocrine and cardiovascular function, sleep-wake cycle disturbances, seizure susceptibility, and an array of behavioral changes. These changes are determined partly by species and strain; partly by noise intensity level, duration, predictability, and other characteristics of the sound; and partly by animal history and exposure context. This article reviews some of the basic strain and species differences in hearing and outlines how the acoustic environment affects different mammals.     

Alternatives to continuous social housing.

Although social housing is desirable for social species of nonhuman primates, circumstances arise whereby social housing is precluded (for example, certain kinds of infectious disease or toxicologic research, when the health of the animal(s) would be compromised by social housing, and animals which respond behaviorally in an inappropriate manner to social housing). Nonsocial alternatives that provide increased environmental complexity to the home cage should then be considered. Nonsocial "environmental enrichment" schemes can be designed to enhance the expression of an individually housed nonhuman primate's locomotive/postural, manipulative, and foraging behaviors. In this way, nonsocial, but species-typical, behaviors can be promoted in the single cage housing condition.     

IACUC issues associated with amphibian research

Numerous species of amphibians are frequently utilized as animal models in biomedical research. Despite their relatively common occurrence as laboratory animals, the regulatory guidelines that institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) must employ provide little in the way of written standards for ectothermic animals. Yet, as vertebrates, laboratory amphibians are covered by the National Research Council Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and the Public Health Service (PHS) Policy for federally funded research. This article focuses on three issues that are relevant to IACUC oversight of the use of amphibians in research: (1) recommended educational requirements of investigators and animal care staff engaged in research with amphibians, (2) zoonoses and other issues of occupational health importance, and (3) indicators of stress and disease. Addressing these issues should enable investigators, IACUCs, and animal care staff to meet the regulatory expectations of the PHS and accrediting bodies such as the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International.     

Genetic diversity of laboratory gray short-tailed opossums (Monodelphis domestica): effect of newly introduced wild-caught animals.

The colony of gray, short-tailed opossums (Monodelphis domestica) at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, the primary supplier of this species for research purposes, was founded with nine animals trapped in 1978 in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. Since 1984, 14 newly acquired founders from the state of Paraiba, Brazil have contributed to the gene pool of the colony. The animals from Paraiba and their descendants are significantly larger than the founders from Pernambuco and their descendants. The two groups also differ significantly in several measurements of morphologic traits. The changes in proportional contribution of each founder to the colony, and changes in inbreeding coefficients during the colony's history, are evaluated. Using previously established markers and three newly identified markers (ACP2, APRT, and DIA1), we show that the Paraiba-derived animals differ significantly from the original founders in allele frequencies and heterozygosity. The genetic diversity of the colony has been substantially increased by acquisition of the new founders from Paraiba. The colony is highly polymorphic, with 22.2% of loci surveyed by protein electrophoresis being variable. We conclude that the genetic differences between populations and among projects within the colony should be considered in future colony management procedures and in selection of experimental subjects.     

A checklist for ecological management of landscapes for conservation

The management of landscapes for biological conservation and ecologically sustainable natural resource use are crucial global issues. Research for over two decades has resulted in a large literature, yet there is little consensus on the applicability or even the existence of general principles or broad considerations that could guide landscape conservation. We assess six major themes in the ecology and conservation of landscapes. We identify 13 important issues that need to be considered in developing approaches to landscape conservation. They include recognizing the importance of landscape mosaics (including the integration of terrestrial and aquatic areas), recognizing interactions between vegetation cover and vegetation configuration, using an appropriate landscape conceptual model, maintaining the capacity to recover from disturbance and managing landscapes in an adaptive framework. These considerations are influenced by landscape context, species assemblages and management goals and do not translate directly into on-the-ground management guidelines but they should be recognized by researchers and resource managers when developing guidelines for specific cases. Two crucial overarching issues are: (i) a clearly articulated vision for landscape conservation and (ii) quantifiable objectives that offer unambiguous signposts for measuring progress.     

Genetic Engineering and Other Factors That Might Affect Human-Animal Interactions in the Research Setting

Evidence exists, particularly in the welfare literature of nonhuman animals on the farm, that the interaction between nonhuman animals and the personnel who care for them can have a strong effect on the animals' behavior, productivity, and welfare. Among species commonly used for biomedical research, mice appear to be the least-preferred species in animal care facilities. A review of the literature and observations of animal care staff interacting with mice indicated that the following factors may influence this: their small size, their particular behavioral characteristics, and husbandry constraints (such as housing in ventilated racks). In addition, this study questioned whether animal care personnel have a different perception of genetically engineered animals and whether this, in turn, has an effect on their interactions with these animals. The ability to carefully observe an animal's behavior is key in carrying out an animal-wellness assessment and in minimizing pain and distress. Attention to human-animal interactions in the research setting represents an opportunity for refinement for large numbers of animals and potentially for reduction of animal use.     

Genetic engineering and other factors that might affect human-animal interactions in the research setting

Evidence exists, particularly in the welfare literature of nonhuman animals on the farm, that the interaction between nonhuman animals and the personnel who care for them can have a strong effect on the animals' behavior, productivity, and welfare. Among species commonly used for biomedical research, mice appear to be the least-preferred species in animal care facilities. A review of the literature and observations of animal care staff interacting with mice indicated that the following factors may influence this: their small size, their particular behavioral characteristics, and husbandry constraints (such as housing in ventilated racks). In addition, this study questioned whether animal care personnel have a different perception of genetically engineered animals and whether this, in turn, has an effect on their interactions with these animals. The ability to carefully observe an animal's behavior is key in carrying out an animal-wellness assessment and in minimizing pain and distress. Attention to human-animal interactions in the research setting represents an opportunity for refinement for large numbers of animals and potentially for reduction of animal use.     

水产动物行为及其在渔业中的应用研究进展

水产动物的行为研究是渔业领域的重要研究方向,对理解水产动物的行为表型与功能,对提升渔业生产效果有着重要的理论和应用价值。现阶段水产动物行为学的研究成果已被广泛应用于水产动物人工养殖、渔业资源保护和捕捞渔业等多个领域。文章综述了水产动物行为的研究现状,水产动物主要的行为类型,每种行为的发生及其机理,行为间的相互影响及行为在渔业中的应用状况。同时,针对当前水产动物行为学研究存在的问题,提出了今后水产动物行为学的研究方向和研究重点。文章旨在为水产动物行为学领域的研究提供借鉴与启发,并为水产动物行为学研究成果在渔业中的应用提供理论参考。     

Human evolutionary psychology and animal behaviour

Homo sapiens is increasingly being studied within the evolutionary (adaptationist, selectionist) framework favoured by animal behaviour researchers. There are various labels for such work, including evolutionary psychology, human behavioural ecology and human sociobiology. Collectively, we call these areas 'human evolutionary psychology' (HEP) because their shared objective is an evolutionary understanding of human information processing and decision making. Sexual selection and sex differences have been especially prominent in recent HEP research, but many other topics have been addressed, including parent-offspring relations, reciprocity and exploitation, foraging strategies and spatial cognition. Many HEP researchers began their scientific careers in animal behaviour, and in many ways, HEP research is scarcely distinguishable from other animal behaviour research. Currently controversial issues in HEP, such as the explanation(s) for observed levels of heritable diversity, the kinds of data needed to test adaptationist hypotheses, and the characterization of a species-typical 'environment of evolutionary adaptedness', are issues in animal behaviour as well. What gives HEP a distinct methodological flavour is that the research animal can talk, an ability that has both advantages and pitfalls for researchers. The proper use of self-reports and other verbal data in HEP might usefully become a subject of future research in its own right. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

The effectiveness of indigestible markers for identifying individual animal feces and their prevalence of use in North American zoos

Techniques for analyzing hormone metabolites in animal excreta have created many opportunities for noninvasive monitoring of health, reproduction, and welfare in zoo animals, but can be difficult to implement when individual samples are not readily identifiable in animal groups. A common approach to this problem is to feed animals an indigestible marker that subsequently appears in feces, but there has been little systematic research on the use of such “fecal markers.” First, we used an online survey to assess the prevalence of fecal marker use in North American zoological institutions. Second, we conducted a series of experimental tests utilizing commonly employed fecal markers in a variety of typical zoo taxa to determine the: (1) effectiveness of several markers to accurately distinguish samples in a variety of species, (2) minimum quantity of marker needed for detection, and (3) length of time between ingestion and detection in the feces. The majority of the 45 institutions that completed the survey reported using fecal markers with their collections. The survey also revealed that the most frequently used markers are seeds/grains and food colorants, with the former generally used in Carnivora and the latter in Primates. Our experimental data confirmed the success of these taxa/marker combinations and also revealed that food colorants function as markers in a variety of avian, reptilian, and mammalian species. Our data describe successful fecal markers for a wide variety of zoo taxa and should, therefore, be useful for zoological managers and researchers needing to employ fecal markers in future investigations. Zoo Biol 30:379–398, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Animal Care Courses: Helping Fulfill the Mandate of Animal Care Committees in Canada

Animal Care Committees (ACCs) at Canadian universities and research centers operate under the aegis of the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) and its guidelines for the humane care and treatment of animals in teaching, research, and testing. All Canadian universities have at least one active committee. The committees are expected to assume an educative role beyond the provision of information concerning housing, maintenance, and appropriate conditions for the treatment of animals in research. This includes critical examination of the serious ethical issues involved in animal research within the context of the principles and practices endorsed by the CCAC. One-day animal care courses provided by ACCs at three Canadian universities are described. Comparisons are made between the content and structure of curricula and the ways these relate to the teaching and research mandate in each institution, focusing particularly on the teaching of ethics in each course. The implications for heightening awareness of ethical issues in animal research and improving the effectiveness of these courses are discussed.     

Animal care courses: helping fulfill the mandate of animal care committees in Canada

Animal Care Committees (ACCs) at Canadian universities and research centers operate under the aegis of the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) and its guidelines for the humane care and treatment of animals in teaching, research, and testing. All Canadian universities have at least one active committee. The committees are expected to assume an educative role beyond the provision of information concerning housing, maintenance, and appropriate conditions for the treatment of animals in research. This includes critical examination of the serious ethical issues involved in animal research within the context of the principles and practices endorsed by the CCAC. One-day animal care courses provided by ACCs at three Canadian universities are described. Comparisons are made between the content and structure of curricula and the ways these relate to the teaching and research mandate in each institution, focusing particularly on the teaching of ethics in each course. The implications for heightening awareness of ethical issues in animal research and improving the effectiveness of these courses are discussed.     

Improving our science: the evolution of butterfly sampling and surveying methods over time

Butterflies are consistently the focus of conservation research because they contribute to ecosystem services, act as biological indicators, and are in decline worldwide. Land managers and researchers use many methods to measure butterfly populations, but this creates issues for standardization and production of comparative, rigorous data. To promote methods more appropriate for research-based conservation, we conducted a literature review focusing on the implementation and advancement of butterfly monitoring methods over time. We identified four main methods that are most frequently used in butterfly research and monitoring: (1) trapping and netting, (2) mark-recapture, (3) transects (Pollard walks), and (4) distance sampling. Although a progression of method development has occurred over time, all methods are still currently used in butterfly research, with trapping, netting, and mark-recapture used in 85% of studies. Over the last century, the amount of butterfly research has steadily increased, so it is vital to select methods that produce accurate, and comparable data. However, we found that method selection was not solely based on the type of data needed for accurate interpretation and extrapolation of results. Instead, land context, species abundance, and historically-used methods are driving method selection. As butterflies remain a high conservation priority, researchers must provide rigorous data that are necessary for creating effective conservation plans and policies by using a framework for method selection.     

Managing invasive species in cities: a decision support framework applied to Cape Town

It has been suggested that existing frameworks for guiding management of invasive species in rural areas and protected areas are inadequate for dealing with invasions in urban settings. A framework for selecting appropriate goals for managing invasive species in urban areas was developed by Gaertner et al. (Landsc Urban Plan 151:1–9, 2016). This framework groups species into three management approaches (control priority, active engagement, and tolerance) depending on their real or perceived benefits and their potential to generate negative impacts. This study tests the practical application of the framework using the example of Cape Town. We assess the suitability of the framework to support decision-making for managing invasive species in urban ecosystems using a questionnaire-based survey of members of the public, and an e-mail-based survey and a workshop with invasion biology researchers and managers. Specifically, we (1) determine the differences in perceptions regarding the benefits and impacts of invasive species between the public, managers and researchers; (2) investigate how consistently managers and researchers group invasive species into the three management categories; and (3) identify, with the help of managers and researchers, issues linked to the framework and give suggestions to overcome the identified issues. We found no clear pattern in the perceptions of the public, managers and researchers regarding perceived benefits and negative impacts of invasive species. Instead, the answers were widely scattered among all groups for most of the species that were considered. However, using the framework leads to a higher consistency among managers in placing the species into management categories, compared to invasive species grouping without guidance of the framework. We conclude that decision-support frameworks can assist managers in placing invasive species into management categories. However, even more specific guidelines on the use of invasive species management frameworks in urban areas are needed.     

Translocation of overabundant species: Implications for translocated individuals

Effective management of overabundant animal populations is a difficult challenge for wildlife managers around the globe. Translocation is often considered a viable management tool, whereby individual animals are removed from areas of high population density and released in areas where densities are lower. Typically, the success of a translocation program is measured at the population source, with little attention given to the fate of translocated individuals. Here we use a koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) translocation program from southeastern Australia as a case study to investigate the effects of translocation on individual animals. The koala is an iconic species that occurs at high densities in some parts of its southern range, leading to numerous conservation and animal welfare issues. Between 1997 and 2007 over 3,000 koalas from a high-density island population were captured, surgically sterilized, and translocated to the mainland. Annual post-translocation surveys at release sites revealed densities of ≤0.4 koalas/ha, despite release densities of 1.0 koala/ha. Radiotracking studies indicate that low densities were because of both mortality and high dispersal of translocated individuals. We observed a mortality rate of 37.5% for translocated koalas in the first 12 months post-release. No deaths occurred among animals that were not sterilized and translocated. Translocated koalas moved greater distances than non-translocated animals. Monitoring of translocated individuals should be performed routinely during translocation programs for overabundant species. Due consideration must be given to what is an acceptable level of mortality for translocated individuals. Although often considered an ethically acceptable management technique (especially for iconic and charismatic species), translocation may not always be the best option from an animal welfare perspective. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.