Parasitic infection of Filaroides osleri, Capillaria aerophila and Spirocera lupi in coyotes from the Southwestern United States

A total of 181 coyotes (Canis latrans) was examined for helminth parasites Filaroides osleri, Capillari aerophila, and Spirocerca lupi. Coyote carcasses were obtained from Kansas, western Oklahoma-northern Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona and southern California. Cysts of F. osleri were present in the trachea or bronchial division in 39 (22%) coyotes. C. aerophila were present in only 7 (4%) coyotes. S. lupi lesions were present in the aorta of 59 (33%) coyotes. Esophageal infections of S. lupi were found in only 4 of 142 (3%) coyotes. F. osleri, C. aerophila and S. lupi infections were more prevalent in western Oklahoma-northern Texas, low in southern Arizona-California, and absent in northern Arizona.     

Trichinella murrelli in scavenging mammals from south-central Wisconsin, USA

Tissues and serum from 59 raccoons (Procyon lotor), 42 coyotes (Canis latrans), and seven Striped Skunks (Mephitis mephitis) collected in Dane and Iowa Counties, Wisconsin, USA, between October 2005 and March 2006 were microscopically and serologically examined for the presence of Trichinella spp. Encapsulated larvae were found on compression slides prepared from tongue tissues from a few animals. Complete tissue digestion of tongues revealed that 19% of the raccoons, 26% of the coyotes, and none of the seven skunks tested were infected with Trichinella spp. Cats were subsequently experimentally infected by feeding them the raccoon tissues containing muscle larvae, and muscle larvae isolated from the collected tongues were experimentally transmitted to mice. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction analysis of the isolated muscle larvae demonstrated two distinct bands migrating at 127 base pairs (bp) and 316 bp in all samples, which together are diagnostic for Trichinella murrelli; the isolates were assigned Istituto Superiore di Sanita (ISS) codes ISS1656 through ISS1667, and ISS1708 through ISS1710 by the International Trichinella Reference Centre. These findings extend the geographic range of T. murrelli into Wisconsin, USA.     

Identification of skunk species submitted for rabies testing in the desert southwest

Skunks usually are identified by their common name (skunk) when submitted for rabies testing. In the desert southwest (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, USA; and northern Mexico), there are five species of skunks; four of which can occur in sympatry. To better understand the ecology of skunk rabies in these areas, it is imperative that species be properly identified. We used the displacement loop (d-loop) of the mitochondrial genome to identify to species 24 skunk brain samples submitted for rabies testing in New Mexico from 2001 to 2002. Most were identified as striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), but hooded (Mephitis macroura) and hog-nosed (Conepatus leuconotus) skunks were also found.     

Prevalence of Trichinella spp. in black bears, grizzly bears, and wolves in the Dehcho Region, Northwest Territories, Canada, including the first report of T. nativa in a grizzly bear from Canada

Samples of muscle from 120 black bears (Ursus americanus), 11 grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), and 27 wolves (Canis lupus) collected in the Dehcho Region of the Northwest Territories from 2001 to 2010 were examined for the presence of Trichinella spp. larvae using a pepsin-HCl digestion assay. Trichinella spp. larvae were found in eight of 11 (73%) grizzly bears, 14 of 27 (52%) wolves, and seven of 120 (5.8%) black bears. The average age of positive grizzly bears, black bears, and wolves was 13.5, 9.9, and approximately 4 yr, respectively. Larvae from 11 wolves, six black bears, and seven grizzly bears were genotyped. Six wolves were infected with T. nativa and five with Trichinella T6, four black bears were infected with T. nativa and two with Trichinella T6, and all seven grizzly bears were infected with Trichinella T6 and one of them had a coinfection with T. nativa. This is the first report of T. nativa in a grizzly bear from Canada. Bears have been linked to trichinellosis outbreaks in humans in Canada, and black bears are a subsistence food source for residents of the Dehcho region. In order to assess food safety risk it is important to monitor the prevalence of Trichinella spp. in both species of bear and their cohabiting mammalian food sources.     

Genetic structure of American black bears in the desert southwest of North America: conservation implications for recolonization

American black bears (Ursus americanus) have recolonized parts of their former range in the Trans-Pecos region of western Texas after a >40-year absence. Assessment of genetic variation, structuring, gene flow, and dispersal among bear populations along the borderlands of Mexico and Texas is important to gain a better understanding of recolonization by large carnivores. We evaluated aspects of genetic diversity and gene flow for 6 sampling areas of black bears in southwestern North America using genotypic data from 7 microsatellite loci. Our results indicated that genetic diversity generally was high in the metapopulation of black bears in northern Mexico and western Texas. The episodic gene flow occurring via desert corridors between populations in northern Mexico and those in western Texas has permitted the establishment of only moderate levels of genetic structuring. Bayesian clustering analyses and assignment testing depicted the presence of 3 subpopulations among our 6 sampling areas and attested to the generally panmictic nature of bear populations in the borderlands region. The potentially ephemeral nature of the small populations in western Texas and genotypic characteristics of bears recolonizing these habitats attest to the importance of linkages along this portion of the borderlands of the United States and Mexico to effectively conserve and manage the species in this part of its range.     

Sylvatic and domestic Trichinella spp. in wild boars; infectivity, muscle larvae distribution, and antibody response

Thirty-six wild boars were inoculated with Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella nativa, Trichinella britovi, Trichinella pseudospiralis (USSR), T. pseudospiralis (USA), T. pseudospiralis (AUST), Trichinella murrelli, Trichinella T6, and Trichinella nelsoni. The wild boars were killed at 5 and 10 wk postinoculation (PI), and the number of muscle larvae per g (lpg) of tissue was determined for 18 muscles or muscle groups. Five weeks PI, all Trichinella genotypes had established as muscle larvae, but their infectivity varied widely: T. spiralis established in high numbers (mean = 296 lpg), T. britovi, T. nelsoni, and 1 of the T. pseudospiralis genotypes (AUST) in moderate numbers (mean = 53-74 lpg), whereas the remaining genotypes were poorly infective (mean 2-16 lpg). Because of considerable weight gain of the wild boars, an estimated total larval burden (live weight x lpg) was calculated for each animal. The total larval burden did not change significantly over time for T. spiralis, T. murrelli, T. britovi, T. nelsoni, and T. pseudospiralis (USA and USSR), whereas a significant reduction could be demonstrated for T. nativa, Trichinella T6, and T. pseudospiralis (AUST). Diaphragm and tongue were predilection sites in wild boars, independent of Trichinella genotype and infection level. At low infection levels, a greater percentage of larvae were found in diaphragm and tongue at 10 wk than 5 wk PI. Antibody responses increased rapidly between weeks 3 and 5 PI. For T. spiralis and T. nelsoni, the high antibody level persisted throughout the experimental period, but for T. nativa, T. britovi, T. murrelli, or Trichinella T6, the levels declined. For T. pseudospiralis, the antibody response increased more gradually between weeks 3 to 10 PI. Infection with all genotypes of Trichinella were detected using any of 7 excretory-secretory antigens, which points to the potential use of 1 common antigen for epidemiological studies on Trichinella in wild boars. In conclusion, T. spiralis is highly infective to wild boars, T. britovi, T. nelsoni, T. pseudospiralis (USA), and T. pseudospiralis (USSR) are moderately infective, and T. nativa, T. murrelli, T. pseudospiralis (AUST), and Trichinella T6 are poorly adapted to this host species.     

Variation in DNA microsatellites of the ferruginous pygmy-owl (Glaucidium brasilianum)

Eleven polymorphic microsatellite loci were used to assess genetic variation in the ferruginous pygmy owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) from North America. Analysis of genotypic variation suggests restricted gene flow between pygmy-owl populations in Arizona-Sonora and Sinaloa, and Texas and the remaining states in Mexico. The Arizona-Sonora population showed signs of a recent genetic bottleneck, an observation supported by low population estimates for Arizona (13–117 individuals). Heterozygosity in Arizona, however, was equal to levels recorded throughout Mexico and Texas. Congruent patterns revealed by nuclear (microsatellites) and mitochondrial DNA that indicate Arizona-Sonora and Texas populations are distinct from adjacent populations in Mexico, thus emphasizing need for the design and implementation of separate management plans for recovery and conservation efforts. Revealing evidence of distinct groups within the pygmy-owl populations in North America, results from this study may be used to make management decisions for the recovery and conservation of this species.     

The Chicano Heritage

Our Catholic Heritage in Texas, 1519–1936 . Carlos E. Castañeda.
The American Occupation of New Mexico 1821–1852 . Sister Mary Loyola.
Northern Mexico on the Eve of the United States Invasion: Rare Imprints Concerning California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, 1821–1846 . David J. Weber , ed.
Ill Fares the Land: Migrants and Migratory Labor in the United States . Carey McWilliams.
Los Estados Unidos y el México Olvidado . Agustin Cue Cánovas.
Hispanic Folklore Studies of Arthur Campa . Introduction by Carlos E. Cortés.
Spanish and Mexican Land Grants in California . Rose Hollenbaugh Aviña. M.S. thesis, University of California, 1934     

Bovine tuberculosis in free-ranging carnivores from Michigan

During a survey of carnivores and omnivores for bovine tuberculosis conducted in Michigan (USA) since 1996, Mycobacterium bovis was cultured from lymph nodes pooled from six coyotes (Canis latrans) (four adult female, two adult male), two adult male raccoons (Procyon lotor), one adult male red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and one 1.5-yr-old male black bear (Ursus americanus). One adult, male bobcat (Felis rufus) with histologic lesions suggestive of tuberculosis was negative on culture but positive for organisms belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex when tested by polymerase chain reaction. All the tuberculous animals were taken from three adjoining counties where M. bovis is known to be endemic in the free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population. There were two coyotes, one raccoon, one red fox, and one bobcat infected in Alpena county. Montmorency County had two coyotes and one raccoon with M. bovis. Two coyotes and a bear were infected from Alcona County. These free-ranging carnivores/omnivores probably became infected with M. bovis through consumption of tuberculous deer. Other species included in the survey were opossum (Didelphis virginiana), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and badger (Taxidea taxus); these were negative for M. bovis.     

From middens to molecules: phylogeography of the piñon pine,Pinus edulis

Aim Data from packrat middens have established a hypothesized historical biogeography of piñon pine, Pinus edulis, including locations of glacial refugia in the south‐western USA and subsequent migration out of the refugia. In this study, we used molecular techniques to test the glacial refugial hypotheses inferred from packrat (Neotoma) midden data for P. edulis. Location South‐western USA. Methods Two fragments of chloroplast DNA (a portion of the matK gene and a portion of the rbcL gene) for a total of 1045 base pairs were amplified and sequenced for 100 individuals. Thirty‐one populations were sampled throughout the range of P. edulis. Phylogenetic analyses included maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. Results Very little variation existed among the individuals sampled. Four haplotypes were identified. The inferred ancestral haplotype was the most widespread; it was most common in Texas and New Mexico where, with the exception of one individual, it was the only haplotype found. Arizona and Utah populations were more diverse, with almost half of the populations containing two or more haplotypes. The most derived haplotype was most abundant in Arizona. Main conclusions The distribution of haplotypes is geographically informative. Only one haplotype exists in the south‐eastern portion of the range of P. edulis whereas up to four haplotypes are found in other populations, suggesting one of two hypotheses: either all modern populations are descended from a refugial population in central Arizona, or modern populations are descended from two refugial populations, one in central Arizona and another in Texas–southern New Mexico. Interpreting these data in the light of packrat midden data gives more support for the latter hypothesis.     

Comparison of Mexican Wolf and Coyote Diets in Arizona and New Mexico

ABSTRACT Interactions between wolves (Canis lupus) and coyotes (C. latrans) can have significant impacts on their distribution and abundance. We compared diets of recently translocated Mexican wolves (C. l. baileyi) with diets of resident coyotes in Arizona and New Mexico, USA. We systematically collected scats during 2000 and 2001. Coyote diet was composed mostly of mammalian species, followed by vegetation and insects. Elk (Cervus elaphus) was the most common item in coyote scats. Mexican wolf diet had a higher proportion of large mammals and fewer small mammals than coyote diet; however, elk was also the most common food item in Mexican wolf scats. Our results suggest that Mexican wolf diet was more similar to coyote diet than previously reported, but coyotes had more seasonal variation. Considering results in other areas, we expect that Mexican wolves will have a negative impact on coyotes through direct mortality and possibly competition. Reintroduction of Mexican wolves may have great impacts on communities by changing relationships among other predators and their prey.     

Characterization of six microsatellite DNA loci for Sorex arizonae

Sorex arizonae is a rare species that occupies a narrow range of habitat types in several mountain ranges of New Mexico, Arizona and Northern Mexico. Here we identify and characterize six microsatellite loci for this species. We screened 63 individuals from four different localities from New Mexico and Arizona to analyse genetic variability. Alleles ranged from three to 16. Heterozygosity ranged from 40% to 78%. Most polymorphic loci were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium with the exception of one locus. Primers appear to have reasonable cross‐species applicability as five loci amplified in another shrew species (Sorex monticolus).     

Molecular characterization of Trichinella genotypes by inter-simple sequence repeat polymerase chain reaction (ISSR-PCR)

A bulk analysis of inter-simple sequence repeat-polymerase chain reaction (ISSR-PCR) provides a quick, reliable, and highly informative system for DNA banding patterns that permit species identification. The present study evaluates the applicability of this system to Trichinella species identification. After a single amplification carried out on a single larva with the primer 816([CA]nRY) under high stringency conditions, which provide high reproducibility, we were able to identify by consistent banding patterns 5 sibling species: Trichinella spiralis (ISS48), 2 Trichinella britovi isolates (ISS11 and ISS86), Trichinella murrelli (ISS35), Trichinella nativa (ISS71), Trichinella nelsoni (ISS29); 3 additional Trichinella genotypes: T8 (ISS149), T9 (ISS408 and ISS409), and T6 (ISS34); and the nonencapsulated species Trichinella pseudospiralis (ISS13). Moreover, 33 new Trichinella isolates from 2 zoogeographical regions were unequivocally identified. All Trichinella isolates have shown an identical pattern with those produced by the reference strain. According to these data, we have demonstrated that ISSR-PCR is a robust technique that emerges as a useful new application for the molecular identification of Trichinella isolates in epidemiological studies.     

Infectivity, persistence, and antibody response to domestic and sylvatic Trichinella spp. in experimentally infected pigs

Groups of pigs were inoculated with genotypes of Trichinella belonging to: Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella nativa, Trichinella britovi, Trichinella pseudospiralis (from Caucasus), T. pseudospiralis (from USA), Trichinella murrelli, Trichinella sp. (from North America), and Trichinella nelsoni. The pigs were sacrificed between 5 and 40weeks p.i., and the number of muscle larvae per gram (l.p.g.) of tissue was determined as an average of 18 muscles. All Trichinella genotypes were infective for pigs, but both their infectivity and persistence varied: 5weeks p.i., T. spiralis muscle larvae were present in high numbers (mean=427l.p.g.), while T. britovi, T. nelsoni, and T. pseudospiralis larvae were present in moderate numbers (means=24-52l.p.g.); larvae of the remaining genotypes were recovered only in low numbers (means=0.05-5. 00l.p.g.). The total larval burden (live weight of pigxl.p.g.) was constant over time for T. spiralis, T. britovi, and T. nelsoni, but declined significantly (P<0.05) for the other genotypes. Antibody responses could be detected 3-4weeks p.i. by seven different Trichinella ES antigens, but the antibody levels and dynamics differed significantly among the experimental groups. In pigs inoculated with T. spiralis, T. britovi, or T. nelsoni, the antibody level increased rapidly between weeks 3 and 5 p.i. and was stable or increased slightly throughout the experimental period. In pigs inoculated with T. nativa, T. murrelli, or Trichinella (T6) (from North America), a rapid increase was detected between weeks 3 and 5 p.i., but for these genotypes a reduction in the antibody levels was seen thereafter. In the pigs inoculated with T. pseudospiralis, the antibody level increased more gradually over a period from week 3 p. i. to weeks 15-20 p.i., and decreased thereafter. In general, all species of Trichinella were detected by any of the seven ES antigens, which points to the potential use of one common antigen for surveillance and epidemiological studies on both domestic and sylvatic Trichinella in pigs. Homologous ES antigens were slightly more sensitive in detecting antibodies to the corresponding Trichinella species.     

Mitochondrial DNA Variation and Phylogeography of the Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl (Glaucidium brasilianum)

Sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene were used to examine patterns of variation within and among populations of the ferruginous pygmy-owl (Glaucidium brasilianum) from both North America (including populations from Mexico) and South America. As currently conceived, G. brasilianum is paraphyletic, with North American and South American clades representing two distinct groups that should be recognized as the distinct species G. ridgwayi and G. brasilianum, respectively. Within the G. ridgwayi clade, populations from Arizona, Sonora, and Sinaloa are genetically distinct and share no mitochondrial haplotypes with populations occurring in Texas and other regions of Mexico. According to nested clade analysis this separation may be the consequence of past fragmentation that predates the origin of the Sonora desert. In addition, gene flow between the Arizona/Sonora/Sinaloa populations and the Texas/other Mexico populations is practically nonexistent, with estimates being approximately one individual every 10 generations. Collectively, these data suggest that the Arizona/Sonora/Sinaloa clade should be recognized as either a distinct subspecies or phylospecies from the group containing populations in Texas and the remainder of Mexico. These data should be used as guidelines for pygmy-owl recovery and conservation, as they meet the recommendations of task 3 of the pygmy-owl recovery plan that lists genetic data as essential information for pygmy-owl management.     

New host and locality records of coccidia (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from rodents in the southwestern and western United States.

One hundred forty-seven murid and heteromyid rodents were collected from various sites in the southwestern and western United States (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah) and Baja California Norte, Mexico, and their feces were examined for coccidial parasites. Of these, 53 (36%) were infected with at least 1 coccidian; 45 of 53 (85%) of the infected rodents harbored only 1 species of coccidian. Infected rodents included: 10 of 22 (45%) Neotoma albigula, 3 of 11 (27%) Neotoma floridana, 2 of 14 (14%) Neotoma lepida, 15 of 29 (52%) Neotoma micropus, 5 of 8 (63%) Peromyscus crinitis, 6 of 6 (100%) Peromyscus difficilis, 1 of 2 (50%) Peromyscus eremicus, 9 of 34 (26%) Sigmodon hispidis, and 2 of 3 (67%) Sigmodon ochrognathus; 4 Neotoma cinerea, 3 Neotoma devia, 3 Neotoma mexicana, 1 Peromyscus maniculatus, 1 Onychomys leucogaster, 1 Onychomys torridus, 3 Chaetodipus fallax, and 2 Chaetodipus penicillatus were negative. Although no new species was found, the following coccidians were identified from infected rodents: Eimeria albigulae from N. albigula, N. floridana, and N. micropus, Eimeria antonellii from N. albigula and N. micropus, Eimeria ladronensis from N. albigula, N. floridana, N. lepida, and N. micropus, Eimeria arizonensis and Eimeria lachrymalis from P. crinitis and P. difficilis, Eimeria lachrymalis from P. eremicus, Eimeria tuskeegensis from S. ochrognathus, and Eimeria roperi, Eimeria sigmodontis, Eimeria tuskeegensis, Eimeria webbae, and an unidentified species of Eimeria from S. hispidis. This report documents 12 new host and several distributional records for Eimeria species from murid rodents in Arizona, Texas, and Utah.     

Phylogeography of a widespread small carnivore,the western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis) reveals temporally variable signatures of isolation across western North America

We analyzed phylogeographic patterns in the western spotted skunk, Spilogale gracilis Merriam, 1890 (Carnivora: Mephitidae) in relation to historical events associated with Pre‐Pleistocene Divergence (PPD) and Quaternary climate change (QCC) using mitochondrial DNA from 97 individuals distributed across Western North America. Divergence times were generated using BEAST to estimate when isolation in putative refugia occurred. Patterns and timing of demographic expansion was performed using Bayesian skyline plot. Putative climatic refugia resulting from Quaternary climate change were identified using paleoecological niche modeling and divergence dates compared to major vicariant events associated with Pre‐Pleistocene conditions. We recovered three major mitochondrial clades corresponding to western North America (California, Baja, and across the Great Basin), east‐central North America (Texas, central Mexico, New Mexico), and southwestern Arizona/northwestern Mexico. Time to most recent common ancestor for S. gracilis occurred ~1.36 Ma. Divergence times for each major clade occurred between 0.25 and 0.12 Ma, with signature of population expansion occurring 0.15 and 0.10 Ma. Ecological niche models identified three potential climatic refugia during the Last Interglacial, (1) west coast of California and Oregon, (2) northwestern Mexico, and (3) southern Texas/northeastern Mexico as well as two refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum, (1) western USA and (2) southern Texas/northeastern Mexico. This study supports PPD in shaping species‐level diversity compared to QCC‐driven changes at the intraspecific level for Spilogale, similar to the patterns reported for other small mammals (e.g., rodents and bats). Phylogeographic patterns also appear to have been shaped by both habitat and river vicariance, especially across the desert southwest. Further, continuing climate change during the Holocene coupled with anthropogenic modifications during the Anthropocene appears to be removing both of these barriers to current dispersal of western spotted skunks.     

Helminth parasites of unisexual and bisexual whiptail lizards (Teiidae) in North America. II. The New Mexico whiptail (Cnemidophorus neomexicanus)

Twelve of 61 (20%) unisexual New Mexico whiptails (Cnemidophorus neomexicanus) from three counties of central New Mexico (USA) and two counties of extreme southwestern Texas (USA) were found to be infected with one or more endoparasites. These included a linstowiid cestode (Oochoristica bivitellobata) in seven (11%), a larval spirurid nematode (Physaloptera sp.) in three (5%), an oxyurid nematode (Pharyngodon warneri) in two (3%) and an unidentified acanthocephalan cystacanth in a single (2%) lizard. This report constitutes the first record of helminths from C. neomexicanus.     

Morbidity-mortality factors and survival of an urban coyote population in Arizona

The health of coyotes (Canis latrans) in urban areas has not been studied. Our objectives were to assess the health of coyotes in Tucson (Arizona, USA) by determining the prevalence of antibodies to selected pathogens, estimating survival rates, and identifying sources of mortality. We drew blood from 22 coyotes to evaluate the prevalence of heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) antigens, and antibodies to canine distemper virus (CDV), infectious canine hepatitis (ICH), canine parvovirus (CPV), and seven serovars of Leptospira interrogans. We trapped and radiocollared 19 coyotes to determine survival rates. We performed necropsies on 19 coyotes to quantify their general health, the presence of internal and external parasites, and causes of mortality. No coyotes tested positive for heartworm antigens. The prevalence of antibody to CDV, ICH, and CPV was 27, 50, and 100%, respectively. Twenty-seven percent of coyotes tested positive for one of five serovars of L. interrogans. The diseases for which coyotes in Tucson possessed antibodies appear to be enzootic in the population. The annual survival rate of coyotes was 0.72. Eleven necropsied coyotes were killed by cars, five coyotes were hit by cars, two were killed by a trapper, and the cause of death for one coyote was unknown. Coyotes in Tucson appear to be exposed to the viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections common in many coyote populations, but humans are the major source of mortality.     

Prevalence of Trichinella spiralis in black bears (Ursus americanus) from Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada.

Tongue and diaphragm samples from 158 black bears (Ursus americanus) from Newfoundland and Labrador were examined for Trichinella spiralis. No larvae were detected in samples from the island of Newfoundland but one animal from the Labrador samples was infected. The results of this and other studies suggest a lack of involvement of the black bear in a sylvatic cycle of T. spiralis in eastern Canada.