Infrasound in the capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus )

We examined the sounds made by displaying male capercaillies on a lek in the Black Forest for infrasonic components. Vocalizations did not contain infrasound, whereas flutter jumps produced substantial low-frequency sound energy, with regularly spaced frequency peaks and maximum energy below 20 Hz. This pattern was found in recordings from different distances and for all tested individuals. Nonvocal infrasound may be significant in territorial behavior or orientation of capercaillie.     

Acoustic Component and Social Context of the Wing Display of the Walnut Fly Rhagoletis juglandis

Courtship signaling via wing vibration, accompanied by sound production, has been reported in several species of tephritids. In this large family of flies, sound communication as well as complex courtship displays appears to be restricted to species with lekking mating systems (i.e., Mediterranean fruit fly, Anastrepha and Dacus species). In contrast, in tephritid species with resource-defense mating systems, such as species in the genus Rhagoletis, little or no courtship behavior, acoustical or otherwise, has been described. Wing displays in Rhagoletis species have been considered to play a visual role. This study describes a distinctive wing display performed by males of the walnut fly, Rhagoletis juglandis. Laboratory experiments and field observations demonstrate that the male wing display plays a role in courtship. We used sound and vibration detectors to record the signals produced by this wing display. Using a combination of techniques, we were able to record both the very low-frequency vibration and its accompanying airborne infrasound (12–22 Hz) produced by the males.     

Identification of acoustic stimuli that mediate sexual behavior inDrosophila busckii (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

We have shown that D. busckiimales and females, unlike other drosophilids that have been analyzed in this regard, court and copulate as well in relatively dim red light as they do in bright white light. We have also shown that males and females of this species flutter their wings during courtship and that wing fluttering in both sexes is associated with acoustic stimuli. Wingless males perform vigorous courtship but are incapable of mating, suggesting that females must perceive male song to be receptive to copulation. When they are tested with normal males, wingless females stimulate vigorous courtship, but their copulation frequencies are significantly lower than winged females. This observation suggests that perception of the female's song by either or both sexes facilitates mating.     

Involvement of Connexin43 in the Infrasonic Noise-Induced Glutamate Release by Cultured Astrocytes

Infrasonic noise/infrasound is a type of environmental noise that threatens public health as a nonspecific biological stressor. Glutamate-related excitotoxicity is thought to be responsible for infrasound-induced impairment of learning and memory. In addition to neurons, astrocytes are also capable of releasing glutamate. In the present study, to identify the effect of infrasound on astroglial glutamate release, cultured astrocytes were exposed to infrasound at 16 Hz, 130 dB for different times. We found that infrasound exposure caused a significant increase in glutamate levels in the extracellular fluid. Moreover, blocking the connexin43 (Cx43) hemichannel or gap junction, decreasing the probability of Cx43 being open or inhibiting of Cx43 expression blocked this increase. The results suggest that glutamate release by Cx43 hemichannels/gap junctions is involved in the response of cultured astrocytes to infrasound.     

EQUIPMENT REVIEW

ABSTRACT

The Northern White Rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum cottoni is a subspecies of the White Rhino that is almost extinct in the wild. We studied the last reproducing herd kept in Zoo Dvur Kralove to describe its vocal repertoire. The calls produced by eight individuals were recorded and analysed as concerned both sound properties and behavioural contexts in which they were emitted. We distinguished 11 calls belonging to four categories: (1) tonal harmonic sounds, (2) puffing sounds, (3) growling sounds, and (4) repetitive sounds. We found an apparent similarity between acoustic parameters of homologous calls recorded in both white rhino subspecies. We further confirmed that the repertoire of white rhino calls is much larger than that reported in other rhino species. We tentatively interpret this finding as an adaptation to increased sociality. Four calls reach the infrasound range; nevertheless, they are probably not used for communication over distance. This is obvious in the case of the grouch call, which contains the highest infrasound component. There are, however, other candidates for such a communication function: the repetitive pant sound, which is not known in other rhino species. We hypothesise that the repetitions may enhance their audibility in the typical open habitats of white rhinos.     

The Ectoparasites of the European Badger, Meles meles, and the Behavior of the Host-Specific Flea, Paraceras melis

The badger-specific flea, Paraceras melis, jumps repeatedly when separated from its host Meles meles; thereafter fleas settled into sheltered positions. After separation from badgers, some 42% of fleas (n = 63) voided their gut contents; this was associated with a significant increase in mean jumping distance. The maximum longevity of fleas away from the host was 89 days, with 50% mortality at around 35 days. Badger lice, Trichodectes melis, survived for up to 3 days postcapture. We conclude that the badger's habit of frequently swapping dens with a mean period of return of 6 days is unlikely to bring about significant mortality of adult fleas but may effectively eradicate lice. Fleas abandoned in bedding in a simulated badger sett were mobile, being drawn toward light and moving upward. This response would draw the fleas to the den entrance, which may be a suitable site to intercept returning badgers. The fleas responded to stimuli which might signal the proximity of the host: they jumped toward sources of carbon dioxide and of carbon dioxide in air current directed at the flea. The strongest response was seen when a mixture of stimuli consisting of carbon dioxide, a dark circle of card, and movement were tested; the majority of fleas jumped toward the mixed stimulus. Finally, fleas separated from the host responded to exhaled air by running and jumping; this is in marked contrast to their response to those stimuli when on the host, when fleas run downward and very rarely jump. These contrasting observations find adaptive explanation in the two contexts.     

Detection of infrasound and linear acceleration in fishes

Fishes have an acute sensitivity to extremely low-frequency linear acceleration, or infrasound, even down to below 1 Hz. The otolith organs are the sensory system responsible for this ability. The hydrodynamic noise generated by swimming fishes is mainly in the infrasound range, and may be important in courtship and prey predator interactions. Intense infrasound has a deterring effect on some species, and has a potential in acoustic barriers. We hypothesize that the pattern of ambient infrasound in the oceans may be used for orientation in migratory fishes, and that pelagic fishes may detect changes in the surface wave pattern associated with altered water depth and distant land formations. We suggest that the acute sensitivity to linear acceleration could be used for inertial guidance, and to detect the relative velocity of layered ocean currents. Sensitivity to infrasound may be a widespread ability among aquatic organisms, and has also been reported in cephalopods and crustaceans.     

Toxic Prorocentrum lima induces abnormal behaviour in juvenile sea bass

Juveniles of the European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax were exposed to both cell-free medium and whole cell cultures of the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima strain PL2V. Fish were also fed a commercial fish diet in tanks containing live P. lima, and Artemia that had ingested the alga. Fish exposed to the cell-free medium and to whole cell cultures were stressed and behaved abnormally when compared to the behaviour of control fish, fish in normal seawater. Stress-related behaviours included hyperactivities (jumps, fast let-right turns, surface swims, etc), poor feeding reflexes and abstinence from feeding. Fish that directly ingested the alga or that ingested Artemia containing the alga died. Histological studies revealed that gills and liver of treated fish were impacted, as opposed to the normal conditions of same tissues in control fish. The diseased organs could have been responsible for the abnormal behaviours and death of treated fish. The aquaculture and ecological implications of the results are discussed.     

Displaying behaviour and mating system in the Siberian Spruce Grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis Hartlaub 1855)

Summary The Siberian Spruce Grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis) is a species endemic to far-eastern Russia and a close relative toF. canadensis andF. franklinii of North-America. Prior to this study, little was known about the display behaviour, social organisation and seasonal movements of this grouse. We investigated these topics in 1990–1997, in 2 areas, 100 km N and 200 km NW of Komsomolsk/Amur. We caught, measured and marked 80 individuals. We determined the age of cocks by the size of combs and the length of neck feathers. Spatial organisation of the local population was studied by equipping 60 birds with transmitters and following them all-year-round.During the reproductive period males and females were territorial. Winter flocks (2–6 birds) break up by late March or early April, and spring flocks break up 1 month later. Cocks were present at the display ground from April 1 to May 25. Females visited the display grounds from April 25 to May 10. Eggs were laid between May 7 and May 20. The main display performances of cocks (upright posture and tail flicks, walks with tail swish, flutter jumps, flutter flights, drumming flights), courtship and agonistic behaviour were analysed from photographs and video recordings. Three-year-old cocks carried out most of the copulations. During the high season of display, we recorded activity (morning and evening displays, moving versus roosting) during continuous observations and counted flutter jumps, flutter flights and drumming flights.Parts of the displays of the Siberian spruce grouse are more diversified than those of the North-American species. The communication system is perfectly adapted to the dense habitat of the mountain taiga. Different acoustic signals for communication at very short, medium and longer distances seem to have evolved under specific predation pressure. The territorial system is very flexible, ranging from individual display grounds to an arena-like structure. The mating system is polygyny.

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Balzverhalten und Paarungssystem des Sichelhuhns (Falcipennis falcipennis Hartlaub 1855)

Zusammenfassung Das Sichelhuhn (Falcipennis falcipennis) als endemisches Raufußhuhn des Fernen Ostens Russlands ist eng verwandt mit den nordamerikanischen FichtenhühnernF. canadensis undF. franklinii. Von 1990–1997 wurden Ökologie und Verhalten dieser Art in zwei Gebieten (100 km N und 200 km NW von Komsomolsk am Amur) studiert. 80 Vögel wurden gefangen, vermessen und markiert. Zwei Maße (Größe der Überaugenwülste und Halsfederlänge) gestatten eine Altersbestimmung der Hähne. 60 besenderte Vögel lieferten rund um das Jahr Daten zu Raum- und Habitatnutzung, Reproduktion und Mortalität. Individuelle Markierung und Ortung zu beliebigen Zeiten erleichterten auch die Verhaltensstudien. In der Reproduktionsperiode besaßen sowohl Hähne als auch Hennen Reviere. Winterflüge aus 2–6 Vögeln lösten sich Ende März/Anfang April auf; die Frühjahresgruppen einen Monat später. Die Hähne waren im Mittel zwischen 1. April und 25. Mai an den Balzplätzen anzutreffen, die Hennen erschienen dort zwischen 25. April und 10. Mai. Zwischen 7. und 20. Mai erfolgte die Eiablage. Die wichtigsten Elemente des Territorialverhaltens (Aufrechthaltung mit Schwanzspreizen, Imponierläufe mit Schwanzfederzischen, Flattersprünge, Flatterflüge und Trommelflüge), Revierverteidigung und Werbung werden nach Foto- und Videoaufzeichnungen beschrieben. Dreijährige Hähne vollzogen die meisten Paarungen. Zwischen 1. und 9. Mai, wenn Werbe- und Paarungsverhalten kulminieren, wurden durch Ganztagsbeobachtungen Morgen- und Abendaktivität, Ortsveränderungen und Ruhephasen quantitativ erfasst, ebenso der tägliche Anteil von Flattersprüngen, Flatter-und Trommelflügen. Im Vergleich zu den nordamerikanischen Geschwisterarten sind Teile des Verhaltensrepertoires des Sichelhuhns zur Balzzeit stärker differenziert. Das Kommunikationssystem ist an dichte Habitate der borealen Bergtaiga angepasst: Verschiedene akustische Signale, die auf sehr kurze, mittlere and längere Distanzen wirken, sind offenbar in Anpassung an den spezifischen Feinddruck entstanden. Das Reviersystem erscheint flexibel: Die Spanne reicht von solitär agierenden Hähnen bis zu Arena — ähnlichen Balzplätzen. Das Paarungssystem ist Polygynie.

     

次声作用对大鼠血浆SOD、MDA、NO 水平的影响*

目的:通过观察16 Hz/130 dB次声作用大鼠不同时间其血浆超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、丙二醛(MDA)、一氧化氮(NO)水平的变化,揭示次声作用对大鼠氧化应激损伤的特点。方法:80只SD大鼠随机分为次声作用1、7、14、21和28 d组及对应的假暴露组,每组8只大鼠。次声暴露组每日定时在次声舱内接受16 Hz/130 dB次声作用2h,连续1、7、14、21和28 d,假暴露组除不施加次声作用外,其在次声舱中放置的时间、次数、采样时间点均和次声暴露组相同。次声暴露后即刻测定大鼠血浆SOD、MDA、NO水平,测得的结果与假暴露组进行比较。结果:与假暴露组相比,大鼠血浆SOD活力在次声作用后显著降低(P<0.05),且随次声作用时间延长,SOD活力逐渐降低;大鼠血浆MDA含量在次声作用后显著升高(P<0.05),且随次声作用时间延长,MDA含量逐渐升高;大鼠血浆NO含量在次声作用7、14 d时显著降低(P<0.05),1、21和28 d时无统计学差异(P>0.05)。结论:次声作用可引起大鼠氧化应激损伤,损伤的程度与次声暴露时间有关。     

Development of wing morphology in the Indian pygmy batPipistrellus mimus

The growth and development of the wing parameters of the Indian pygmy batPipistrellus mimus was studied under natural conditions. Newborn young were marked with nontoxic coloured paint and were later marked with split rings. The wingspan and wing area showed linear growth until the age of five weeks, after which the rate of growth decreased. The observations on flight showed that at the age of 19 days the young were able to flutter their wings, at the age of 22 days they flew for a short distance and at the age of 29 days they exhibited sustained flight. The development of wing loading and aspect ratio are also presented. The decrease in wing loading as the bat grows is discussed as an advantage to sustain flight. The aspect ratio showed a high degree of scatter at early stages of life which decreased at the later period of growth. In general the development of wing morphology ofP. mimus is similar to that of other vespertilionid bats.     

Infrasonic hearing in birds: a review of audiometry and hypothesized structure–function relationships

The perception of airborne infrasound (sounds below 20 Hz, inaudible to humans except at very high levels) has been documented in a handful of mammals and birds. While animals that produce vocalizations with infrasonic components (e.g. elephants) present conspicuous examples of potential use of infrasound in the context of communication, the extent to which airborne infrasound perception exists among terrestrial animals is unclear. Given that most infrasound in the environment arises from geophysical sources, many of which could be ecologically relevant, communication might not be the only use of infrasound by animals. Therefore, infrasound perception could be more common than currently realized. At least three bird species, each of which do not communicate using infrasound, are capable of detecting infrasound, but the associated auditory mechanisms are not well understood. Here we combine an evaluation of hearing measurements with anatomical observations to propose and evaluate hypotheses supporting avian infrasound detection. Environmental infrasound is mixed with non‐acoustic pressure fluctuations that also occur at infrasonic frequencies. The ear can detect such non‐acoustic pressure perturbations and therefore, distinguishing responses to infrasound from responses to non‐acoustic perturbations presents a great challenge. Our review shows that infrasound could stimulate the ear through the middle ear (tympanic) route and by extratympanic routes bypassing the middle ear. While vibration velocities of the middle ear decline towards infrasonic frequencies, whole‐body vibrations – which are normally much lower amplitude than that those of the middle ear in the ‘audible’ range (i.e. >20 Hz) – do not exhibit a similar decline and therefore may reach vibration magnitudes comparable to the middle ear at infrasonic frequencies. Low stiffness in the middle and inner ear is expected to aid infrasound transmission. In the middle ear, this could be achieved by large air cavities in the skull connected to the middle ear and low stiffness of middle ear structures; in the inner ear, the stiffness of round windows and cochlear partitions are key factors. Within the inner ear, the sizes of the helicotrema and cochlear aqueduct are expected to play important roles in shunting low‐frequency vibrations away from low‐frequency hair‐cell sensors in the cochlea. The basilar papilla, the auditory organ in birds, responds to infrasound in some species, and in pigeons, infrasonic‐sensitive neurons were traced back to the apical, abneural end of the basilar papilla. Vestibular organs and the paratympanic organ, a hair cell organ outside of the inner ear, are additional untested candidates for infrasound detection in birds. In summary, this review brings together evidence to create a hypothetical framework for infrasonic hearing mechanisms in birds and other animals.     

First report of the Asian seaweed <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sargassum filicinum</Emphasis> Harvey (Fucales) in California,USA

We report the occurrence of the brown seaweed Sargassum filicinum Harvey in southern California. Sargassum filicinum is native to Japan and Korea. It is monoecious, a trait that increases its chance of establishment. In October 2003, Sargassum filicinum was collected in Long Beach Harbor. In April 2006, we discovered three populations of this species on the leeward west end of Santa Catalina Island. Many of the individuals were large, reproductive and senescent; a few were small, young but precociously reproductive. We compared the sequences of the mitochondrial cox3 gene for 6 individuals from the 3 sites at Catalina with 3 samples from 3 sites in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan region. The 9 sequences (469 bp in length) were identical. Sargassum filicinum may have been introduced through shipping to Long Beach; it may have spread to Catalina via pleasure boats from the mainland.     

What is infrasound?

Definitions of infrasound and low-frequency noise are discussed and the fuzzy boundary between them described. Infrasound, in its popular definition as sound below a frequency of 20 Hz, is clearly audible, the hearing threshold having been measured down to 1.5 Hz. The popular concept that sound below 20 Hz is inaudible is not correct.

Sources of infrasound are in the range from very low-frequency atmospheric fluctuations up into the lower audio frequencies. These sources include natural occurrences, industrial installations, low-speed machinery, etc.

Investigations of complaints of low-frequency noise often fail to measure any significant noise. This has led some complainants to conjecture that their perception arises from non-acoustic sources, such as electromagnetic radiation.

Over the past 40 years, infrasound and low-frequency noise have attracted a great deal of adverse publicity on their effects on health, based mainly on media exaggerations and misunderstandings. A result of this has been that the public takes a one-dimensional view of infrasound, concerned only by its presence, whilst ignoring its low levels.     

Reactions of cyprinids to infrasound in a lake and at the cooling water inlet of a nuclear power plant

Behavioural effects of infrasound on cyprinids were tested. In Lake Borrevann, Norway, acute avoidance responses, at a distance up to 10 m from a 16 Hz infrasound projector were revealed by echosounding. At 10 m distance, a coarse estimate of the stimulus level (measured as the acceleration component of the particle motions) was c. 10⁻³ m s⁻². Habituation was not evident during these tests. Two synchronized infrasound units were also installed 6 m apart in front of a cooling water intake of a nuclear power plant on the River Meuse, Belgium. Echosounding was used to compare the number of fishes entering the intake canal during on–off infrasound sequences. Relative to off-periods, the reduction of the number of fishes entering during on-periods was >80% at a distance of 0–12 m from the units. A significant reduction of 48% was observed considering the whole width (54 m) that was monitored. Fish impingement on the mechanical screens during the study revealed that >90% of the fishes entering the intake were cyprinids.     

Effect of leaf flutter on the light environment of poplars

The dynamics of the canopy light environment for two poplar species (Populus tremuloides Michx., and P. fremontii Wats.) were characterized with an array of photocells in fixed positions within the canopy or attached directly to leaves and using a data logger that recorded photon flux density (PFD) at frequencies from 1 to 20 Hz. The majority of sunflecks were short in duration (<1 s) with a similar short interval between sunflecks. Sunflecks contribute as much as 90% of the total daily PFD in the lower canopy. Leaf flutter may cause high frequency (3 to 5 Hz) variations of PFD in poplar canopies. The amount of light intercepted by a fluttering leaf at the top of the canopy decreased with increasing flutter, whereas a fluttering lower canopy leaf showed no such trend. When leaves fluttered at the top of the canopy the understory light environment showed an increased number of shorter sunflecks. Leaf flutter may increase mean PFD for understory leaves. It also creates a canopy light environment that is more dynamic temporally and more evenly distributed spatially. The potential benefits of these changes in light dynamics are discussed.     

Avoidance Responses to Infrasound in Downstream Migrating European Silver Eels, Anguilla anguilla

In an attempt to develop an efficient acoustic fish fence, we have designed an infrasound source able to generate large nearfield particle acceleration. The source generates water movements by means of two symmetrical pistons in an air-filled cylinder with 21cm bore. The pistons are driven by eccentric coupling to an electric motor, with 5cm p.p. amplitude. The piston movements are 180° out of phase. The piston reaction forces are thus opposed, leading to vibration free operation. The submergible infrasound source is operated freely suspended in the water mass. The emitted sound frequency is 11.8Hz. The particle acceleration is about 0.01ms^–2 at a distance of 3m, corresponding to the threshold intensity for deterring effects of infrasound on Atlantic salmon smolts. The sound source was employed to test the effect of intense infrasound on migrating European silver eels. Fish confined in a tank displayed startle behaviour and prolonged stress reactions, telemetrically monitored as tachycardia, in response to intense infrasound. The field tests were carried out in the River Imsa. A trap that catches all the descending eels is installed near the river mouth. The trap was separated in four equal sections. During the periods with infrasound exposure, the proportion of silver eels entering the section closest to the sound source was reduced to 43% of the control value. In the section closest to the opposite river bank, infrasound increased the proportion of trapped eels to 144% of the control values. This shift of the migrating eels away from the infrasound source was highly significant.     

Cost of resistance and tolerance under competition: the defense-stress benefit hypothesis

Defense costs provide a major explanation for why plants in nature have not evolved to be better defended against pathogens and herbivores; however, evidence for defense costs is often lacking. Plants defend by deploying resistance traits that reduce damage, and tolerance traits that reduce the fitness effects of damage. We first tested the defense-stress cost (DSC) hypothesis that costs of defenses increase and become important under competitive stress. In a greenhouse experiment, uniparental maternal families of the host plant Arabis perennans were grown in the presence and absence of the bunch grass Bouteloua gracilis and the herbivore Plutella xylostella. Costs of resistance and tolerance manifest as reduced growth in the absence of herbivory were significant when A. perennans grew alone, but not in the competitive environment, in contrast to the DSC hypothesis. We then tested the defense-stress benefit (DSB) hypothesis that plant defenses may benefit plants in competitive situations thereby reducing net costs. For example, chemical resistance agents and tolerance may also have functions in competitive interactions. To test the DSB hypothesis, we compared differentially competitive populations for defense costs, assuming that poorer competitors from less dense habitats were less likely to have evolved defenses that also function in competition. Without competitive benefits of defenses, poorer competitors were expected to have higher net costs of defenses under competition in accordance with DSB. Populations of A. perennans and A. drummondii that differed dramatically in competitiveness were compared for costs, and as the DSB hypothesis predicts, only the poor competitor population showed costs of resistance under competition. However, cost of tolerance under competition did not differ among populations, suggesting that the poor competitors might have evolved a general stress tolerance. Although the DSC hypothesis may explain cases where defense costs increase under stress, the DSB hypothesis may explain some cases where costs decrease under competitive stress.     

Low synonymous site variation at thelacY locus inEscherichia coli suggests the action of positive selection

We have determined the nucleotide sequences of sevenlacY alleles isolated from natural isolates ofEscherichia coli. Nucleotide heterozygosity estimates for this locus were compared to those obtained from previous studies of intraspecific variation at chromosomal loci, revealing thatlacY has unusually low synonymous site variation. The average pairwise heterozygosity of synonymous sites (Ks=0.0112+/-0.0100) is the second lowest reported and the lowest for loci that have an equivalent level of nonsynonymous variation. We consider several hypotheses to explain how different forces in evolution could act to create the observed pattern of polymorphism, including selection for translational efficiency and positive selection. Our analysis most strongly supports the hypothesis that positive selection has acted on thelacY locus inE. coli.     

EVOLUTION OF HABITAT PREFERENCE AND NUTRITION MODE IN A COSMOPOLITAN FUNGAL GENUS WITH EVIDENCE OF INTERKINGDOM HOST JUMPS AND MAJOR SHIFTS IN ECOLOGY

Host jumps by microbial symbionts are often associated with bursts of species diversification driven by the exploitation of new adaptive zones. The objective of this study was to infer the evolution of habitat preference (decaying plants, soil, living fungi, and living plants), and nutrition mode (saprotrophy and mycoparasitism) in the fungal genus Trichoderma to elucidate possible interkingdom host jumps and shifts in ecology. Host and ecological role shifts were inferred by phylogenetic analyses and ancestral character reconstructions. The results support several interkingdom host jumps and also show that the preference for a particular habitat was gained or lost multiple times. Diversification analysis revealed that mycoparasitism is associated with accelerated speciation rates, which then suggests that this trait may be linked to the high number of species in Trichoderma. In this study it was also possible to infer the cryptic roles that endophytes or soil inhabitants play in their hosts by evaluating their closest relatives and determining their most recent ancestors. Findings from this study may have implications for understanding certain evolutionary processes such as species radiations in some hyperdiverse groups of fungi, and for more applied fields such as the discovery and development of novel biological control strategies.