Elucidating inequality in Nubia: An examination of entheseal changes at Kerma (Sudan)

Located 10 km south of the Third Cataract of the Nile River, the ancient city of Kerma was once capital to the second largest state in Africa. The Eastern Cemetery at Kerma (～4 km east of city center) encompasses 80+ hectares and was used over a period of 1,500 years (3,200–1,500 BC). Excavated in the early 20th century by George Reisner, the cemetery contained an estimated 20,000–40,000 individuals. Reisner classified these burials into multiple categories, including chiefs and human sacrifices, based on burial position and grave goods. This study investigates the skeletal embodiment of social inequality by examining variation in entheseal severity between the Kerma burial classifications. Seventeen entheses were examined using the Hawkey and Merbs (1995) scoring method (n = 205 individuals); age, sex, and body size variables were considered by employing Mann–Whitney U tests and partial Spearman's correlations. This analysis suggests that significant differences in entheseal changes existed between select burial types. Specifically, “corridor sacrifices” had significantly higher rates of entheseal changes while “chiefs” and “subsidiary burials” had similar entheseal changes; furthermore, within these burial categories, males had higher entheseal scores despite body size controls. The elevated entheseal changes in the sacrificial burials may be due to an intensive agro‐pastoral lifestyle or other demanding forms of manual labor. In conclusion, the disparity of entheseal markers between burial subgroups at Kerma might reflect a degree of social inequality within this state level society. This bioarchaeological research informs our understanding of socially‐defined categories of persons as well as everyday life in Ancient Kerma. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:192–202, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Health of the non-elites at Tombos: Nutritional and disease stress in New Kingdom Nubia

During the New Kingdom period, Egypt succeeded in occupying most of Nubia. Colonial towns were built, which served as centers of government and redistribution. This paper uses a bioarchaeological approach to address the effects of this cultural contact on non-elites. Skeletal remains from the site of Tombos (N = 100), a cemetery in Upper Nubia dating to this important time, are analyzed, in addition to 1,082 individuals from contemporaneous Egyptian and Nubian sites, in order to shed light on the social, political, and economic processes at play and to determine how the people at Tombos were affected during this transitional period. In many ways, the Tombos population appears to have been affected by similar stressors as the other populations under study. However, a few small differences in the subadult frequencies of pathological lesions, especially remodeling rates, are significant in the overall picture of health at Tombos. These analyses suggest that, although the people of Tombos may have been integrated into the Egyptian colonial network, the additional resources they may have obtained could not protect them from nutritional and disease stress. A lower childhood survival through bouts of ill health at Tombos is suggested. While status may have played a role in the differences seen in the comparative populations, it is likely that parasites and/or other infections led to childhood illness and death.     

Traumatic injuries and imperialism: the effects of Egyptian colonial strategies at Tombos in upper Nubia

As circumstances of conquest change, leaders of empires must adapt their colonial strategies in order to be successful. One example of such modification in approach is the shift from Middle Kingdom to New Kingdom Egyptian colonial activities in Nubia. During the Middle Kingdom (2050-1650 BC) Egypt used aggressive military campaigns to subdue the strong Nubian polity at Kerma, resulting in the construction of fortresses and many victory stelae. In the subsequent New Kingdom period (1550-1050 BC) during which the Egyptian administration succeeded in occupying nearly all of Nubia, changes were necessary in conquest strategies. Diplomacy and cooperation may have replaced military action as mechanisms of control. This article investigates changes in imperial policy through the examination of traumatic injuries in human skeletal remains. Patterns of injuries in a sample from the site of Tombos, an Egyptian colonial cemetery in Nubia dating to the New Kingdom period, are compared with data on the patterns of injuries from Kerma, a cemetery dating to the Middle Kingdom period, published by Judd (2004). Analysis indicates a decrease in the level of traumatic injuries from Kerma to Tombos supporting the idea that through time the Egyptian administration modified their colonial strategy toward more nonviolent means. This article presents data on differences in the patterns of injury at Tombos and Kerma and explores possible explanations for this variation.     

Euhydrophyte communities of the River Nile and its impoundments in Egyptian Nubia

The River Nile and its two impoundments, the Aswan Reservoir and Lake Nasser, are important habitats for submerged and floating-leaved freshwater macrophytes (euhydrophytes) in the desert region of Egyptian Nubia. Ordination and classification analysis of survey data collected during the period 1980–1986 suggested that the Aswan High Dam forms a man-made vegetational boundary, delineating two basic macrophyte community types. In Lake Nasser a community dominated by Najas spp. is present. In the Aswan Reservoir and the R. Nile downstream of the old Aswan Dam the euhydrophyte community is dominated by a Potamogeton crispus — Ceratophyllum demersum association. Differences between the two community types appear to be related to differences in physical factors (e.g. water level fluctuation and flow regime), and water chemistry, to phenological factors, and to the differing successional ages of the macrophyte communities of the Nile system upstream and downstream of the Aswan High Dam. There is some evidence for depth zonation of the submerged macrophyte community in both lake and river habitats. Strategy analysis of the euhydrophyte communities present upstream and downstream of the High Dam, over the period 1963–89, indicated that successful established-phase strategy types were similar on both sides of the dam. In the long term there seems little to prevent euhydrophyte species at present confined to below the High Dam from crossing this boundary to colonise Lake Nasser.     

Muscle markers revisited: activity pattern reconstruction with controls in a central California Amerind population

Anthropologists frequently use musculoskeletal stress markers to reconstruct past activity patterns. Yet, researchers have called into question the reliability of muscle marker measurements in part because body size and age affect muscle marker scores. In this study, the author examined an aggregate upper limb muscle marker to determine if after controlling for the effects of body size and age, one could reconstruct activity patterns of a prehistoric Amerind population. Analyses were made of a sample of 102 (43 males, 59 females) prehistoric central California Amerinds. Muscle markers were measured using two-point observer rating scales; body size was measured by humeral articular surfaces; age and sex were determined previously through standard procedures. Using sex separated rankings and partial correlations, disaggregated muscle markers were examined for correlations with age and size to determine if specific muscle markers may be useful in pinpointing to activity patterns. Aggregate upper limb muscle marker correlated with: age, r = 0.44; humeral size, r = 0.44; and sex, r = 0.43; Ps < 0.001. Older individuals had greater muscle markers, as did larger individuals, and males. Rankings seemed to be confounded by the effect size had on the muscle markers. However, based on partial correlations controlling for size and age, the differences that remained between males and females could be used to reconstruct male activities of throwing in hunting and interpersonal aggression acts.     

Enthesopathy formation in the humerus: Data from known age‐at‐death and known occupation skeletal collections

Enthesopathies, in the guise of musculoskeletal skeletal stress markers (MSM), have been widely used to reconstruct activity levels in human skeletal populations. In general, studies have focused on their presence in the upper limb, which is used in the majority of daily activities. The aim of this study was to use some of the attachment sites on the humerus to explore the relationship between enthesopathy formation, activity, and the ageing process. The skeletal sample used in this study comprised male adult skeletons with known age‐at‐death and known occupations from the late‐19th and early‐20th century cemeteries in Portugal. The enthesopathies were recorded as either present or absent. Statistical analysis using Fishers exact tests and logistic regression was undertaken to determine whether associations could be found between specific activities or socioeconomic status (manual or nonmanual workers), and age and enthesopathy presence. Left and right sides were analyzed separately. Fisher's exact tests were used to determine the relationship between activity and enthesopathy, and they demonstrated no association between activity and enthesopathies (P > 0.01). The results of the logistic regression established that age was the single most significant factor in enthesopathy formation (P > 0.05). This study found that, in these samples, age‐at‐death, and therefore age‐related degeneration rather than degeneration caused by activities, was the primary cause of enthesopathy formation. Considering the difficulties of reliably ageing adult human skeletal remains, this is a major issue for studies of activity using enthesopathies. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Musculoskeletal stress markers in Natufian hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers in the Levant: the upper limb

This paper attempts to quantify the changes in activity patterns of early farming populations in the Levant through the musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) of the upper limb as seen in skeletal remains. The transition to an agricultural way of life resulted in higher loads on the upper limb in Neolithic populations compared to the Natufian hunter-gatherer populations that preceded them. The MSM pattern for males and females indicates a gender-based division of labor both in the Natufian and the Neolithic. It may also suggest that people in the Neolithic period were engaged in different (new) activities and occupations compared to the Natufian.     

Tracing prehistoric activities: musculoskeletal stress marker analysis of a Stone-Age population on the island of Gotland in the Baltic sea

The skeletal remains from the Middle Neolithic (2750-2300 BC) burial ground at Ajvide, Gotland, are analyzed in order to explore musculoskeletal patterns and to attempt to trace general as well as three specific prehistoric activities (archery, harpooning, and kayaking) that are likely to have been performed in this marine setting of fishing, hunting, and gathering. Scoring of muscular and ligament attachments is performed using the scoring method of Hawkey and Merbs ([1995] Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 5:324-338) for muskuloskeletal stress markers (MSM). The skeletal material consists of 24 male and 15 female adult individuals divided into three age groups: young (<24 years), middle (25-39 years), and old (>40 years). Thirty upper body MSM sites, on both the left and right sides, are scored and form the basis of the study. Results show that males most frequently have higher mean MSM scores than females. Bilateral asymmetry was noted as low in both sexes. Age proved to be a contributing factor to increased MSM scores, with a greater age-related increase in females. MSM patterns were analyzed statistically in muscle groups associated with the three investigated activities. Significant positive correlations were observed in male individuals in muscle groups associated with archery and to some extent harpooning, an indication that these activities would mainly have been performed by men. Correlations in kayaking muscles were not evidently consistent with the kayaking motion. Furthermore, the costoclavicular ligament, often referred to in connection with "kayaker's clavicle," showed no positive statistical correlation with the kayaking muscles.     

Dental indicators of health and stress in early Egyptian and Nubian agriculturalists: a difficult transition and gradual recovery

Although agriculture is now the globally predominant mode of food production, studies of the skeletal remains of early agriculturalists have indicated high levels of physiological stress and poor health relative to hunter-gatherers in similar environments. Previous studies identifying this trend in different regions prompt further research of the causes and effects of subsistence transitions in human societies. Here, 242 dentitions from five ancient Egyptian and Nubian populations are examined: 38 individuals from Jebel Sahaba (Upper Paleolithic), 56 from Badari (Predynastic), 54 from Naqada (Predynastic), 47 from Tarkhan (Dynastic), and 47 from Kerma (Dynastic). These populations span the early period of agricultural intensification along the Nile valley. Skeletal remains were scored for the presence of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) of the dentition, an established indicator of physiological stress and growth interruption. The prevalence of LEH was highest in the "proto-agricultural" (pastoralist) Badari population, with a gradual decline throughout the late Predynastic and early Dynastic periods of state formation. This suggests that the period surrounding the emergence of early agriculture in the Nile valley was associated with high stress and poor health, but that the health of agriculturalists improved substantially with the increasing urbanization and trade that accompanied the formation of the Egyptian state. This evidence for poor health among proto- and early agriculturalists in the Nile valley supports theories that agricultural intensification occurred as a response to ecological or demographic pressure rather than simply as an innovation over an existing stable subsistence strategy.     

Functional plasticity of the human humerus: Shape,rigidity, and muscular entheses

The relationship between the mechanical loading undergone by a bone and its form has been widely assumed as a premise in studies aiming to reconstruct behavioral patterns from skeletal remains. Nevertheless, this relationship is complex due to the existence of many factors affecting bone structure and form, and further research combining structural and shape characteristics is needed. Using two‐block PLS, which is a test to analyze the covariance between two sets of variables, we aim to investigate the relationship between upper‐limb entheseal changes, cross‐sectional properties, and contour shape of the humeral diaphysis. Our results show that individuals with strongly marked entheseal changes have increased diaphyseal rigidities. Bending rigidities are mainly related to entheseal changes of muscles that cross the shoulder. Moreover, the entheseal changes of muscles that participate in the rotation of the arm are related to mediolaterally flatter and ventrodorsally broader humeral shapes in the mid‐proximal diaphysis. In turn, this diaphyseal shape is related to diaphyseal rigidity, especially to bending loadings. The shape of the diaphysis of the rest of the humerus does not covary either with rigidity or with entheseal changes. The results indicate that large muscular scars, such as those found in the mid‐proximal diaphyses, seem to be related to diaphyseal shape, whereas this relationship is not seen for areas with less direct influences of powerful muscles. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:609–617, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Trend,signal and noise in the ecology of Ostracoda: information from rare species in low-diversity assemblages

Samples of Ostracoda from nearshore marine environments, where the water is more likely to be brackish or hypersaline, typically have low species diversity and are dominated by such species as Cyprideis torosa. In high-diversity samples from normal-marine environments, rare species are likely to contribute to environmental noise. Evaluation of low-diversity samples from Lake Manzala, Egypt, however, shows that the environmental signal provided by rare species can be masked by the overwhelmingly dominant species, C. torosa. In such instances, the dominant species should be removed from the data set and studies based on a large sample of the rare species.     

An exploration of adult body shape and limb proportions at Kellis 2, Dakhleh Oasis,Egypt

Several studies have shown that the human body generally conforms to the ecogeographical expectations of Bergmann's and Allen's rules; however, recent evidence suggests that these expectations may not hold completely for some populations. Egypt is located at the crossroads of Sub‐Saharan Africa, Southern Europe, and the Near East, and gene flow among groups in these regions may confound ecogeographical patterning. In this study, we test the fit of the adult physique of a large sample (N = 163) of females and males from the Kellis 2 cemetery (Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt) against ecogeographical predictions. Body shape (i.e., body mass relative to stature) was assessed by the femur head diameter to bicondylar femur length index (FHD/BFL), and brachial and crural indices were calculated to examine intralimb proportions. Body shape in the Kellis 2 sample is not significantly different from high‐latitude groups and a Lower Nubian sample, and intralimb proportions are not significantly different from mid‐latitude and other low‐latitude groups. This study demonstrates the potential uniqueness of body shape and intralimb proportions in an ancient Egyptian sample, and further highlights the complex relationship between ecogeographic patterning and adaptation. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:496–505, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Age patterns of Cryptosporidium species and Giardia duodenalis in dairy calves in Egypt

Little is known of the occurrence and age patterns of species/genotypes and subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in calves in Egypt. In this study, 248 fecal specimens were collected from dairy calves aged 1?day to 6?months on eight farms in three provinces during March 2015 to April 2016. Cryptosporidium spp. were detected and genotyped by using PCR-RFLP analysis of the small subunit rRNA (SSU rRNA) gene, while G. duodenalis was detected and genotyped by using PCR and sequence analyses of the triose phosphate isomerase (tpi), glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) and β-giardin (bg) genes. The overall infection rates of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were 9.7 and 13.3%, respectively. The highest Cryptosporidium infection rate (26.7%) was in calves of age?≤?1?month while the highest G. duodenalis infection rate (44.4%) was in calves of 2?months. Three Cryptosporidium spp. were identified, including C. parvum (n?=?16), C. bovis (n?=?5) and C. ryanae (n?=?3), with the former being almost exclusively found in calves of ≤3?months of age and the latter two being only found in calves of over 3?months. Subtyping of C. parvum by PCR-sequence analysis of the 60?kDa glycoprotein gene identified subtypes IIaA15G1R1 (n?=?15) and IIaA15G2R1 (n?=?1). The G. duodenalis identified included both assemblages E (n?=?32) and A (n?=?1), with the latter belonging to the anthroponotic subtype A2. These data provide new insights into the genetic diversity and age patterns of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in calves in Egypt.     

Climbing influences entheseal morphology in the humerus of mice: An experimental application of the VERA methodology

Objectives

When studying hominin skeletal remains, anthropologists commonly assume that the morphology of entheses (muscle and tendon attachment sites) is influenced by physical activity patterns during life. Here, we use samples of mice from a prior experiment (Siegel & Jones [1975] American Journal of Physical Anthropology 42:141–144) to test this assumption. Specifically, we investigate the effects of habitual climbing on entheses of the humerus using a recently developed protocol for analyzing entheseal morphology called the “Validated Entheses-based Reconstruction of Activity” (VERA) method.

Materials and Methods

In the original experiment, young mice were raised for approximately 9 weeks in one of two experimental conditions: a cage designed to limit locomotion to terrestrial quadrupedalism over a flat surface (n = 22), or a cage designed to impel animals to cling to a suspended wire mesh apparatus and limit their locomotion to climbing (n = 21). We μCT-scanned the humeri of these mice and used the VERA method to assess the morphology of the deltoid tuberosity, greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, and supinator crest.

Results

Significant differences in entheseal morphology were detected between climbers and non-climbers when using both multivariate statistics to assess all entheses simultaneously and univariate statistics to assess each enthesis individually.

Discussion

Our results provide new support for the general use of entheseal morphology for inferring hominin physical activity patterns in the past. Furthermore, based on our results, we propose that analyzing entheseal morphology using the VERA method may be a promising strategy for future research on the importance of climbing in hominin locomotor evolution.

     

Nightmares, life stress, and anxiety: An examination of tension reduction.

Do nightmares increase or decrease anxiety? Theoretical views of nightmares suggest that nightmares play out stressful events, decathecting their energy. A more pragmatic view suggests that nightmares that result in waking distress add to the burden of anxiety. The current study investigates whether negative life events are associated with an increase or decrease in anxiety attributable to nightmares in 624 adolescents aged between 12 and 19. The results indicate no support for a tension reduction hypothesis. There seems no relief from anxiety if a person reports nightmares, and the stronger the distress of waking (from nightmares), the more likely a person is to report anxiety, controlling for life events and the distress associated with life events. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Primary production and respiration of the phytoplankton in the Blue and White Niles at Khartoum

Phytoplankton production and respiration in the Blue Nile and White Nile at Khartoum were measured during the period November 1969–January 1971 using the light and dark bottle technique. Maximum rates of production coincided with periods of maximum phytoplankton densities. In the Blue Nile gross production varied between 0.00 gCm^–3d^–1 during the flood season and 2.19 gCm^–3d^–1 (0.49 mgO₂l^–1h^–1) during November 1969. In the White Nile the range was from 0.41 gCm^–3d^–1 (0.09 MgO₂l^–1h^–1) in May to 3.74 gCm^–3d^–1 (0.83 MgO₂l^–1h^–1) in November. The maximum rates of respiration in the Blue Nile and White Nile were 0.10 and 0.63 MgO₂l^–1h^–1 respectively. The ratios net:gross production were generally higher in the White Nile than in the Blue Nile.     

Irrigation and infection: the immunoepidemiology of schistosomiasis in ancient Nubia

Schistosomiasis has been deemed "the most important water-based disease from a global public-health perspective" in modern populations. To better understand the burden of schistosomiasis in ancient populations, we conducted immunologic examinations of desiccated tissue samples from two ancient Nubian populations, Wadi Halfa (N = 46) and Kulubnarti (N = 191). Saqia irrigated agriculture increases the available habitat for the aquatic vector snails and the risk of exposure. On the basis of evidence regarding the impact of saqia irrigation on schistosomiasis prevalence and transmission in modern populations, we predicted that the prevalence of Schistosoma mansoni infection would be higher in Wadi Halfa (saqia irrigation) than Kulubnarti (annual flooding). We also predicted that peak infection prevalence would occur at an earlier age within the Wadi Halfa population than the Kulubnarti population and that in both populations the prevalence of schistosomiasis would be higher in males than females due to differential water contact. The prevalence of S. mansoni was greater in the Wadi Halfa population (26.1%) than at Kulubnarti (9.4%) (P = 0.002). However, peak prevalence of infection did not occur in a younger age category within the Wadi Halfa population; prevalence of infection peaked at 66.7% in the mature adult age group (46+ years) in the Wadi Halfa population and at 16% in the later child age group (6-10 years) in the Kulubnarti population. There were no statistically significant differences in prevalence between males and females of either population. The impact of human alteration of the environment on the transmission of schistosomiasis is clearly shown in these populations.