Aspects on Feed Related Prophylactic Measures Aiming to Prevent Post Weaning Diarrhoea in Pigs

The ability of feed related measures to prevent or reduce post weaning diarrhoea (PWD) was examined in a split litter study including 30 pigs from 6 litters allotted into 5 groups. Four groups were exposed to 3 pathogenic strains of E. coli via the environment at weaning. Three of them were given zinc oxide, lactose+fibres or non-pathogenic strains of E. coli as probiotics. The challenged and the unchallenged control groups were given a standard creep feed. Diarrhoea was observed in all challenged groups but not among uninfected animals, and the incidence of diarrhoea was lower in the group given non-pathogenic E. coli compared to all other challenged groups. The severity of PWD also differed between litters. When corrected for mortality due to PWD, a decreased incidence of diarrhoea was also seen in the groups given zinc oxide or lactose+fibres. The dominating serotype of E. coli within faecal samples varied from day to day, also among diarrhoeic pigs, indicating that diarrhoea was not induced by one single serotype alone. The diversity of the faecal coliform populations decreased in all piglets during the first week post weaning, coinciding with an increased similarity between these populations among pigs in the challenged groups. This indicated an influence of the challenge strains, which ceased during the second week. The group given lactose+fibres was least affected with respect to these parameters. In conclusion feed related measures may alleviate symptoms of PWD.     

Effects of oral supplementation with Spirulina and Chlorella on growth and digestive health in piglets around weaning

Weaning of piglets is associated with important changes in gut structure and function resulting from stressful events such as separation from the sow, moving to a new facility and dietary transition from a liquid to a solid feed. This may result in post-weaning diarrhoea and a decrease in feed intake and growth. In humans, the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis (SP) and the freshwater microalga Chlorella vulgaris (CV) are known for their beneficial health effects. This study aimed to determine the effects of early oral administration of Spirulina and Chlorella in piglets on mucosal architecture and cytokine expression in the intestine around weaning, and consequences on growth performance and diarrhoea incidence. The experiment was conducted on 108 suckling piglets of 14 days of age (initial BW=4.9±0.7 kg) and weaned at 28 days of age (day 0). Animals received orally 385 mg/kg BW per day of SP or CV, or water (negative control (NC)) during 4 weeks from day −14 to day 14 and their growth performance was measured daily. After weaning, growth, feed intake and diarrhoea incidence were measured daily. Intestinal morphology and functionality were assessed at day −1, day 2, and day 14. During the suckling period, average daily gain (ADG) in SP piglets was higher, resulting in a higher weaning BW compared to NC and CV piglets (P<0.05). No significant difference between treatments was observed for ADG, average daily feed intake, and gain to feed (G : F) ratio after weaning, but the extent of growth retardation after weaning was the lowest in piglets supplemented with Chlorella (P<0.01). Supplementation with Spirulina reduced diarrhoea incidence by 50% from day 0 to day 14 (P<0.05). Mucosal architecture at the jejunum was unaffected by Spirulina or Chlorella administration (P>0.10). Shorter ileal villi were measured in SP and CV piglets than in NC piglets (P<0.05). Cytokine expression did not differ between treatments in response to weaning. At day 14, IL-8 expression in the ileum was higher in SP piglets, while IL-1β expression in the jejunum was higher in CV piglets (P<0.05). This study shows that Spirulina administration around weaning alleviates diarrhoea in weaned piglets, without marked modulation of local inflammation.     

Effect of a single dose of Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii on the occurrence of porcine neonatal diarrhoea

Piglet neonatal diarrhoea is an important issue in modern pig production and is linked to increased mortality and poor growth rates, affecting long-term pig health, increasing use of medication and cost of production. Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii (SB) is a probiotic yeast with documented clinical efficacy in the prevention and treatment of diarrhoeal diseases in humans. The objectives of the current study were to evaluate the effect of SB on occurrence and severity of neonatal diarrhoea in piglets, mortality and growth rate. Forty-six litters (606 piglets) were randomly allocated to a control or SB treatment (n=23 per treatment). Within 24 h of farrowing, piglets assigned to the SB treatment received a single oral dose of a paste containing 3.3×10⁹ CFU of SB CNCM I-1079. Piglets from the control litters received a placebo paste. Piglet weight, mortality and diarrhoea were recorded up to day 7 of age. It was shown that numbers of diarrhoea days were significantly correlated with increased mortality rate and reduced weight gain (P<0.05). SB treatment had no effect on growth or mortality in diarrhoeic litters. However, SB-supplemented litters had significantly lower faecal scores, indicating firmer faeces (P<0.01) and fewer numbers of diarrhoeic days (P<0.01) during the 1^st week of life. Reduction in the number of diarrhoeic litters compared with the control group was observed following the probiotic administration (P<0.05). These results highlight the detrimental effects of neonatal diarrhoea on pre-weaning performance and suggest that SB, by reducing diarrhoea duration and severity, has the potential of improving enteric health in the early stages of life in pigs.     

Epidemiological Studies of Piglet Diarrhoea in Intensively Managed Danish Sow Herds

The study comprised 70,796 litters in 104 sow herds, observed from 1976 through 1982. Weaning age decreased from approx. 42 days to approx. 30 days during the observation period. Diseases and symptoms were recorded together with production parameters (feeding, barn construction, economic returns etc.). The mean incidence rate of pre-weaning diarrhoea was 6.8 % of litters, with considerable inter-herd differences (incidence rates from 0 to approx. 50%). There was a slight increase in incidence during the autumn (August through October). Incidence rates increased with litter size, with a peak incidence in litters of 11–13 piglets, and decreased with increasing parity of the sow. There was a positive association between occurrence of arthritis and pre-weaning diarrhoea in the litters, and litters from sows with post parturient disease (MMA complex) had 1.8 times higher risk of getting diarrhoea than litters from healthy sows. No important differences among breeds were found. Small herds (< 200 farrowings per year) had higher incidence rates than large herds (400–499 farrowings per year). Herds with a gilt proportion above 30 % had an incidence rate of 12.3 %, i. e. nearly twice as high as the overall mean (6.8 %). There was a trend towards a higher incidence rate in litters kept in traditional pens (i. e. large pens with solid floor and loose sows) than in intensive pens (i. e. small pens with slatted flooring and tethered sows). The overall pre-weaning mortality rate was 16.2 % of pigs born, half of which was due to stillbirths (6.3 %) and overlaid piglets (2.2 %). In litters with pre-weaning diarrhoea, the mortality rate was 19 %, compared to 13 % in litters without occurrence of diarrhoea. This difference accounts for an excess loss of 0.6 piglets from birth to weaning in diarrhoeic vs. non-diarrhoeic litters. Piglets from litters with pre-weaning diarrhoea had reduced weight gain. Thus, on the average, they were 2.2 days older at 25 kg bodyweight and weighed 0.4 kg less at 30 days than piglets from non-diarrhoeic litters. Also, litters with pre-weaning diarrhoea had a significantly increased risk of post-weaning diarrhoea. The present information forms a basis for defining acceptable disease thresholds in suckling litters in intensively managed herds.     

Effects of intermittent suckling on body composition of Iberian piglets weaned at 35 days of age

Piglet body composition at weaning could be a determinant for pig’s viability and may be influenced by factors such as the nutritional management followed during suckling. An experiment was conducted to study whether intermittent suckling (IS) affects body composition at weaning and nutrient and energy retention during a 34-day lactation period in Iberian piglets. Litters were subjected to conventional suckling (CS) or IS (n=10 litters of six piglets per treatment) in two trials. All piglets had ad libitum access to creep feed from day 15 onwards. In IS, piglets were progressively separated from the sow for 6, 8 and 10 h daily during the last week of lactation, whereas in CS piglets had continuous access to their dams. Creep feed intake in litters and BW development of individual piglets were measured throughout the 34-day lactation. Within each litter, both at birth and at weaning (day 35), one piglet was used to assess nutrient retention and body composition by the comparative slaughter approach. During days 29 to 35 of the experiment, daily creep feed intake was greater in IS piglets (IS 124, CS 67 g/piglet, P=0.040), and average daily gain differed significantly between groups (IS 190, CS 150 g/day, P=0.010). BW at weaning was higher in the IS than in the CS piglets (IS 8.19, CS 7.48 kg, P=0.011). Empty-body fat and energy content at weaning were higher in the IS compared with CS litters, as well as fat content in the carcass (P=0.04). The IS treatment did not affect empty-body protein deposition, but significantly increased daily retention of fat, energy, ash and calcium, compared with CS litters (P<0.05). Thus, IS in Iberian piglets seems to enhance feed intake, growth rate and retention of some body components, which may contribute to a higher body fat content at weaning and facilitate the weaning process.     

Short communication: insoluble fibres in supplemental pre-weaning diets affect behaviour of suckling piglets

We investigated the effect of offering supplementary dietary fibres to suckling piglets on their behaviour and performance before weaning. From 5 to 22 days of age, suckling piglets were offered a high-fibre diet (HF; 5% cellulose; n=5 litters), or a control low-fibre diet (n=5 litters). Piglets were housed with the sows in individual farrowing pens, and had access to maternal milk until weaning, at 23 days of age. Behaviours of six focal piglets per pen were scored at 6, 16 and 21 days of age. All piglets were individually weighed at 5, 15 and 20 days of age and feed intake was measured daily at the pen level. Piglets on the HF diet were more active than controls (P=0.05), and spent more time suckling or massaging the udder (P=0.01) and interacting with pen mates (P=0.008). Time spent manipulating pen mates, which may reflect re-directed foraging activity in the absence of substrate, accounted for most of the time spent interacting with pen mates (⩾73% of total time spent interacting). Dietary fibres had no effect on BW and feed intake. In conclusion, inclusion of cellulose in the supplemental diet of suckling piglets affects behaviour, with no deleterious effects on performance before weaning.     

Effects of dietary supplementation with freshwater microalgae on growth performance,nutrient digestibility and gut health in weaned piglets

In pigs, digestive disorders associated with weaning lead to antibiotic use to maintain intestinal health. Microalgae have been studied in humans and rodents for their beneficial effects on health. The nutritional value of microalgae in animal diets has been assessed, but results were not conclusive. Dietary supplementation with microalgae as an alternative to antibiotic use was studied in two trials (72 piglets with initial BW=9.1±1.1 kg in trial 1 and 24 piglets with initial BW=9.1±0.9 kg in trial 2). All piglets were weaned at 28 days of age and then housed in individual cages. Piglets were randomly allocated to one of the four diets during 2 weeks after weaning: a standard diet with no supplementation (NC) or the standard diet supplemented with 1% Spirulina (SP), with 1% Chlorella (CV), or with 0.2% of colistin as positive control (PC). Trial 1 was performed to determine the effect of microalgae supplementation from 28 to 42 days on performance and incidence of diarrhoea. Animals received then a standard diet from 42 to 56 days of age. Trial 2 was performed from 28 to 42 days of age to assess nutrient digestibility of the experimental diets and to determine inflammatory status and intestinal morphology at 42 days of age. In trial 1, 94% of the pigs had diarrhoea in the 1st week after weaning with no beneficial effect of colistin on diarrhoea incidence, average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), and gain : feed (G : F) ratio. This suggests that the diarrhoea was due to digestive disorders that did not result from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli infection. Supplementation with either Spirulina or Chlorella did not affect ADFI, ADG and G : F in trials 1 and 2 (P>0.10). Diarrhoea incidence was reduced in CV pigs compared with NC, SP and PC pigs (P<0.05). Total tract digestibility in pig receiving microalgae was greater for gross energy (P<0.05), and tended to be greater for dry matter, organic matter and NDF (P<0.10) compared with NC and PC pigs. Villus height at the jejunum was greater in SP and CV pigs compared with NC and PC pigs (P<0.05). This study shows a potential effect of both Spirulina and Chlorella supplementation on intestinal development and a potential of Chlorella supplementation to manage mild digestive disorders. Further investigation is necessary to determine the mechanism action of Spirulina and Chlorella on gut health and physiology.     

Nurse sow strategies in the domestic pig: II. Consequences for piglet growth,suckling behaviour and sow nursing behaviour

Nurse sow strategies are used to manage large litters on commercial pig farms. However, new-born piglets transferred to nurse sows in late lactation might be compromised in terms of growth and survival. We investigated the effects of two nurse sow strategies on piglet growth, suckling behaviour and sow nursing behaviour. At 1-day post-farrowing, the four heaviest piglets from large litters were transferred to a nurse sow either 21 (1STEP21, n=9 litters) or 7 (2STEP7, n=10 litters) days into lactation. The remainder of the litter remained with their mother and was either kept intact (remain intact (RI), n=10 litters) or had some piglets cross-fostered to equalise birth weights (remain equalised (RE), n=9 litters). The 7-day-old piglets from 2STEP7 were transferred onto a sow 21 days into lactation (2STEP21, n=10 litters). The growth of new-born piglets on 1STEP21 and 2STEP7 nurse sows was initially lower than in RI litters (F_3,33.8=4.61; P<0.01), but weaning weights did not significantly differ (F_4,32.7=0.78; P>0.5). After the 1^st week of lactation, the weights and growth rates did not differ between treatments. Fighting behaviour during nursing bouts decreased over time. The frequency of fights was higher in 1STEP21 and 2STEP21 litters compared with RI litters (t₁₂₂=3.06 and t₁₂₃=3.00, respectively, P<0.05). The 2STEP21 litters had shorter nursing bouts than RI and 1STEP21 litters (t₁₀₇=−2.81 and t_81.7=2.8, respectively, P<0.05), which were more frequently terminated by 2STEP21 than RI sows (t₅₉₅=2.93; P<0.05). Transferring heaviest piglets from RI and RE litters to nurse sows reduced the percentage of teat changes during nursing bouts (RI: F_1,275=16.61; RE: F_1,308=43.59; P<0.001). In conclusion, nurse sow strategies do not appear to compromise piglet growth. However, new-born piglets transferred onto sows in late lactation experienced more competition at the udder, suggesting that the sows’ stage of lactation is of importance to how achievable nurse sow strategies are. Thus, the two-step nurse sow strategy is likely the best option (in relation to growth and suckling behaviour), as it minimises the difference between piglet age and sow stage of lactation.     

Impact of litter size,supplementary milk replacer and housing on the body composition of piglets from hyper-prolific sows at weaning

The modern hyper-prolific sow gives birth to 17 live-born piglets on average. An alternative strategy to nurse sows and artificial rearing may be providing milk replacer while letting all the piglets stay with their dam. However, milk replacer is of lower nutritional quality than sow milk and may reduce the body fat content of piglets who use milk replacer to compensate for low suckling success due to competition at the udder. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the body composition at weaning of two random sow-reared piglets per litter from 93 litters by using the deuterium oxide dilution technique. The piglets were part of large study with a 2×2×2 factorial design of either 14 or 17 piglets from day 1 (LS: LS14/LS17) with or without access to milk replacer (MILK: -MILK/+MILK) and reared by crated or loose-housed sows (HOUSING: CRATE/ LOOSE). From behavioral observations day 21 in +MILK, piglets were divided according to their frequency of drinking milk replacer and suckling (Nutrition Source). Increasing LS from 14 to 17 reduced the average daily gain from 258 to 228 g/d and body fat % from 14.4 to 12.7% (P<0.01). In a two-way interaction between LS and HOUSNG, the body fat percentage was lower (P=0.04) and the water percentage tended to be higher (P=0.07) in LS17 CRATE compared to the other treatments (i.e. LS17 LOOSE, LS14 CRATE and LOOSE). There was no effect of MILK on piglet composition day 28 (P>0.1). In +MILK, the Nutrition Source affected piglet body composition (P<0.05) as piglets with low suckling frequency (LOW) had lower body fat and higher water content compared to piglets who had high suckling frequency (SUCKLE). Unexpectedly, drinking milk replacer in addition to suckling (MIXED) did not increase piglet body fat content. Relying mainly on milk replacer (CUP) caused body fat and water contents to be intermediate to piglets with high (SUCKLE and MIXED) and low suckling frequency (LOW). In conclusion, LS had a clear impact on piglet growth and body composition at weaning. In contrast, supplementation of milk and housing had only negligible impact on litter performance. Some individual piglets that had low frequency of sow milk intake benefitted from milk supplementation. Loose housing appeared to benefit piglet body fat at weaning but this was due to a greater piglet mortality.     

Administration of a novel plant extract product via drinking water to post-weaning piglets: effects on performance and gut health

The present study evaluated the effects of a novel plant extract (PE) product (Grazix^TM) on the performance and gut health of weaned piglets challenged with Escherichia coli. The PE was a standardised mixture of green tea leaves (Camellia sinensis) and pomegranate fruit (Punica granatum) obtained by using the LiveXtract^TM process. A total of 144 piglets were weaned at 24 days and allocated to 8 for a 35-day experiment with a 2×2×2 factorial design comparing different treatments (water without product (CT) or 8 μl/kg per day PE in drinking water (PE)), feeding regimens (ad libitum (AD) or restricted (RE)) and oral E. coli challenges on day 9 (sham (−) or infected (+)). There were six pens per group with three piglets per pen. On day 35, 24 of the RE feeding piglets were slaughtered. It was found that PE supplementation increased the average daily gain (ADG) from day 28 to day 35 (P=0.03) and increased the gain to feed ratio (G : F) from day 7 to day 14 (P=0.02). RE feeding led to lower feed intake in piglets during the 1^st week (P<0.01), 2^nd week (P=0.06), 3^rd week (P=0.05), and throughout the course of the overall study period (P=0.05). E. coli challenge decreased the ADG and G : F ratio from day 7 to day 14 (P=0.08 and <0.01, respectively) and increased the faecal score (higher values indicate more severe diarrhoea) on days 14, 21, 28 and 35 (P<0.01). PE supplementation decreased the faecal score in the challenged piglets during the 1^st week post-challenge (P<0.01). E. coli challenge increased the faecal E. coli level on day 14 (P=0.03) and increased the Enterobacteriaceae level on day 35 (P<0.01). Reduced faecal E. coli was observed on days 14 and 35 (P=0.05 and 0.02, respectively), and reduced Enterobacteriaceae (P<0.01) was found on day 35 in the PE animals. RE feeding increased the faecal Lactobacillus, Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli levels on day 35 (P=0.02, <0.01 and <0.01, respectively). These results suggest that PE supplementation may improve the gut health status of post-weaning piglets and counteract some of the negative effects that occur when piglets are challenged with E. coli.     

Effects of alternative feed additives to medicinal zinc oxide on productivity,diarrhoea incidence and gut development in weaned piglets

The use of medicinal zinc oxide (ZnO) must be phased out by 2022, thus prompting an urgent need for alternative strategies to prevent diarrhoea in weaner piglets. The objectives of this study were to assess the impact on weaner piglet performance, diarrhoea incidence and gut development, when (1) dietary ZnO supplementation was substituted by alternative commercial products based on macroalgae, specific probiotics or synbiotics, or (2) dietary ZnO inclusion was reduced from 2500 to 1500 ppm. A total of 4680 DLY piglets (DanBred, Herlev, Denmark), weaned around 35 days of age, were randomly assigned according to sex and BW to six different dietary treatment groups. A basal diet was supplemented with no ZnO (NC= negative control), 2500 ppm ZnO (PC= positive control), 1500 ppm ZnO (RDZ= reduced dose of ZnO) or commercial macroalgae (OceanFeed™ Swine =OFS), probiotic Miya-Gold or synbiotic GærPlus products. The piglets entered and exited the weaner unit at ~7.0 and 30 kg BW, respectively. In-feed ZnO was provided the first 10 days post-weaning, while the alternative supplements were fed throughout the weaner period. As expected, the average daily feed intake, average daily weight gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and diarrhoea incidence were improved in the PC compared to NC group (P< 0.05) during phase 1 consistent with improved indices of villi development observed in subgroups of piglets sacrificed 11 days post-weaning. Reduction of ZnO to 1500 ppm lowered ADG (P< 0.05) and slightly increased incidence of diarrhoea during the first 10 days after weaning (but not later) without affecting FCR. None of the three alternative dietary additives, including a 10-fold increased dose of GærPlus than recommended, improved piglet performance, gut health and gut development above that of NC piglets. The OFS piglets sacrificed 11 days after weaning had significantly lower weights of hindgut tissue and contents compared to the PC group, consistent with antimicrobial activity of the product, which was detected from anaerobicin vitrofermentation. In conclusion, dietary ZnO supplementation during the first 10 days post-weaning may be reduced from 2500 to 1500 ppm without major negative implications for weaner piglet performance and health in herds under a high management level. However, none of the alternative dietary supplements were able to improve piglet performance or gut health, when ZnO was omitted from the diet.     

Early intervention with faecal microbiota transplantation: an effective means to improve growth performance and the intestinal development of suckling piglets

Recent studies indicate that early postnatal period is a critical window for gut microbiota manipulation to optimise the immunity and body growth. This study investigated the effects of maternal faecal microbiota orally administered to neonatal piglets after birth on growth performance, selected microbial populations, intestinal permeability and the development of intestinal mucosal immune system. In total, 12 litters of crossbred newborn piglets were selected in this study. Litter size was standardised to 10 piglets. On day 1, 10 piglets in each litter were randomly allotted to the faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) and control groups. Piglets in the FMT group were orally administrated with 2ml faecal suspension of their nursing sow per day from the age of 1 to 3 days; piglets in the control group were treated with the same dose of a placebo (0.1M potassium phosphate buffer containing 10% glycerol (vol/vol)) inoculant. The experiment lasted 21 days. On days 7, 14 and 21, plasma and faecal samples were collected for the analysis of growth-related hormones and cytokines in plasma and lipocalin-2, secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), selected microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in faeces. Faecal microbiota transplantation increased the average daily gain of piglets during week 3 and the whole experiment period. Compared with the control group, the FMT group had increased concentrations of plasma growth hormone and IGF-1 on days 14 and 21. Faecal microbiota transplantation also reduced the incidence of diarrhoea during weeks 1 and 3 and plasma concentrations of zonulin, endotoxin and diamine oxidase activities in piglets on days 7 and 14. The populations of Lactobacillus spp. and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and the concentrations of faecal and plasma acetate, butyrate and total SCFAs in FMT group were higher than those in the control group on day 21. Moreover, the FMT piglets have higher concentrations of plasma transforming growth factor-β and immunoglobulin G, and faecal sIgA than the control piglets on day 21. These findings indicate that early intervention with maternal faecal microbiota improves growth performance, decreases intestinal permeability, stimulates sIgA secretion, and modulates gut microbiota composition and metabolism in suckling piglets.     

Complete Genome Sequence and Comparative Analysis of the Wild-type Commensal Escherichia coli Strain SE11 Isolated from a Healthy Adult

We sequenced and analyzed the genome of a commensal Escherichia coli (E. coli) strain SE11 (O152:H28) recently isolated from feces of a healthy adult and classified into E. coli phylogenetic group B1. SE11 harbored a 4.8 Mb chromosome encoding 4679 protein-coding genes and six plasmids encoding 323 protein-coding genes. None of the SE11 genes had sequence similarity to known genes encoding phage- and plasmid-borne virulence factors found in pathogenic E. coli strains. The comparative genome analysis with the laboratory strain K-12 MG1655 identified 62 poorly conserved genes between these two non-pathogenic strains and 1186 genes absent in MG1655. These genes in SE11 were mostly encoded in large insertion regions on the chromosome or in the plasmids, and were notably abundant in genes of fimbriae and autotransporters, which are cell surface appendages that largely contribute to the adherence ability of bacteria to host cells and bacterial conjugation. These data suggest that SE11 may have evolved to acquire and accumulate the functions advantageous for stable colonization of intestinal cells, and that the adhesion-associated functions are important for the commensality of E. coli in human gut habitat.Key words: Escherichia coli, commensal, human gut, genome sequencing     

Supplying sows energy on the expected day of farrowing improves farrowing kinetics and newborn piglet performance in the first 24 h after birth

The farrowing process is one of the most energy-demanding activities for the modern hyperprolific sow. This study evaluated the effects of supply of energy on the expected date of farrowing on the farrowing kinetics and piglets’ performance during the first 24 h after birth. A total of 80 sows were used. The sows and their respective litters were considered as the experimental unit. On the expected day of farrowing, the sows were allocated to one of the following groups: sows that did not have access to feed from farrowing induction until the end of the farrowing process (CON, n = 40); sows fed 500 g of energetic supplement, which consisted of 250 g of the basal lactation diet plus 250 g of cane sugar, 18 h after farrowing induction (SUP, n = 40). The farrowing duration, farrowing assistance, birth interval, number of total born, stillborn and mummified piglets were recorded for each sow. Piglets were weighed individually at birth and 24 h later. The interval from birth to first suckle was evaluated individually for each piglet in 16 randomly selected litters (eight litters per treatment group). Blood glucose concentrations of six sows were measured shortly after expulsion of the first piglet. Farrowing duration, farrowing assistance and stillborn rate tended to be greater (P = 0.06, P = 0.09 and P = 0.07, respectively) in sows from the CON group compared to sows from the SUP group. However, there was no difference (P > 0.05) between the groups for birth interval. Colostrum intake was greater (P < 0.05) for piglets from the SUP group compared to piglets from the CON group. Additionally, BW gain of the piglets suckling the SUP group was greater (P < 0.05) than those suckling the CON group at 24 h after birth. The blood glucose concentrations during the expulsive stage of farrowing were greater (P < 0.05) in the SUP group than for sows from the CON group. In conclusion, supplying modern hyperprolific sows energy on the expected day of farrowing is a valuable nutritional intervention to improve the farrowing kinetics and piglets’ performance in early life.     

Sow and piglet factors determining variation of colostrum intake between and within litters

Colostrum intake has a short- and long-term beneficial impact on piglet performance and mortality. Sows’ colostrum production and piglets’ colostrum intake are limited and highly variable. The present study investigated sow and piglet factors explaining the variation of colostrum intake between and within litters. The CV for colostrum intake and birth weight (BW_b) of all piglets within a litter was calculated to evaluate the variation of colostrum intake and BW_b within a litter (colostrum and litter BW_b heterogeneity, respectively). A total of 1937 live-born piglets from 135 litters from 10 commercial herds were included. Colostrum intake per piglet averaged 371±144 g and was affected by breed (P=0.02). It was lower when oxytocin was administered to the sow during parturition (P=0.001) and with increased litter size (P<0.001). It was higher when the interval between birth and first suckling decreased (t_FS, P<0.001). Colostrum intake was positively influenced by BW_b (P<0.001) and this association was more pronounced in piglets from Topigs (P=0.03) and Hypor (P=0.03) sows compared with piglets from Danbred sow breeds. The positive relationship between colostrum intake and BW_b was more pronounced when t_FS lasted longer (P=0.009). Heterogeneity in colostrum intake averaged 31±11%, it increased when oxytocin was applied during farrowing (P=0.004) and when stillbirth occurred (P=0.006). Colostrum heterogeneity was positively associated with litter size (P<0.001) and litter BW_b heterogeneity (P=0.01). The positive relationship between colostrum and litter BW_b heterogeneity was more pronounced when oxytocin was applied during farrowing (P=0.04). The present study demonstrated that oxytocin should be used cautiously in sows during farrowing. Farrowing and colostrum management should prevent or counteract the adverse influences of stillbirth, large and heterogeneous litters on colostrum intake and colostrum heterogeneity. The study also confirmed the expected association between BW_b and colostrum intake and indicated that the impact of BW_b on colostrum intake was different among breeds (Hypor v. Danbred) and dependent on piglets’ latency to first suckling. Hence, colostrum management should focus on low birth weight piglets, especially in some breeds, and low colostrum intake in low birth weight piglets can be counteracted by shortening the t_FS.     

Effect of milk deprivation during the lactation period on performance and digestive enzyme activities of the piglets following weaning

Post-weaning performance of piglets from systems where lactation is disrupted (e.g. from multisuckling systems) is superior to conventionally reared piglets. The objective of this study was to establish whether restricted growth prior to weaning caused by disruption of suckling was an important factor in post-weaning performance and also whether there were related changes in gastro-intestinal development. Ten litters of eight piglets were used in a split-plot design. Half of each litter (limited suckling, LS) had suckling disrupted by separation from their dam for 7 h/day from day 14 to 28 after farrowing. The remainder of each litter was allowed to suck normally (normal suckling, NS). The same amount of creep feed was offered to LS piglets as consumed by NS littermates on the previous day. There were no differences in weight between LS and NS piglets at 14 days of age, but restricting access to the sow reduced weaning weight at 28 days of age (7.96 v. 9.00 kg; LS v. NS; P < 0.01; s.e.d. 0.23). Feed intakes were greater for LS than NS piglets over the first 28 days post weaning, particularly in the 1st week after weaning when feed efficiency was also improved (0.91 v. 0.62 kg gain per kg feed; P < 0.01; s.e.d. 0.08). As a result, LS piglets grew more rapidly in the first 28 days post weaning, particularly in the first 7 days after weaning. Subsequent performance to 8 weeks was similar for both groups. Digestive organ weights were not different at 2 and 9 days after weaning; nor were small intestine specific enzyme activities significantly different ( P>0.05). Pancreatic trypsin activity was, however, greater ( P < 0.01) for LS pigs on both days 2 and 9 post weaning. In conclusion the restriction of growth as a result of limited suckling itself is an important factor in determining post-weaning performance and may be related to development of pancreatic trypsin activity.     

Induction of Gram-negative bacterial growth by neurochemical containing banana (Musa x paradisiaca) extracts

Bananas contain large quantities of neurochemicals. Extracts from the peel and pulp of bananas in increasing stages of ripening were prepared and evaluated for their ability to modulate the growth of non-pathogenic and pathogenic bacteria. Extracts from the peel, and to a much lesser degree the pulp, increased the growth of Gram-negative bacterial strains Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella flexneri, Enterobacter cloacae and Salmonella typhimurium, as well as two non-pathogenic E. coli strains, in direct relation to the content of norepinephrine and dopamine, but not serotonin. The growth of Gram-positive bacteria was not altered by any of the extracts. Supplementation of vehicle and pulp cultures with norepinephrine or dopamine yielded growth equivalent to peel cultures. Total organic analysis of extracts further demonstrated that the differential effects of peel and pulp on bacterial growth was not nutritionally based, but due to norepinephrine and dopamine. These results suggest that neurochemicals contained within foodstuffs may influence the growth of pathogenic and indigenous bacteria through direct neurochemical-bacterial interactions.     

Effects of Lactobacillus casei and Enterococcus faecalis on growth performance,immune function and gut microbiota of suckling piglets

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of orally administrated Lactobacillus casei and Enterococcus faecalis on performance, immune function and gut microbiota of suckling piglets. Neonatal piglets (n = 120) were randomly assigned to 4 groups, with 30 suckling piglets in each group. The piglets were from 15 litters, one male and one female piglet were selected for each group in each litter. The Control group was administrated with normal saline, the other groups with L. casei or E. faecalis or a combination of L. casei and E. faecalis at a ratio of 3:1. Each piglet was orally administrated with 1, 2, 3 and 4 ml probiotics or normal saline at the age of 1, 7, 14 and 21 d, respectively. The piglets were weaned at the age of 21 d. The results showed that compared with the Control group, the average daily gain of piglets administrated with probiotics was significantly increased, and the diarrhoea rate and mortality were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). After supplementation of the combined probiotics, the protease activity in stomach, duodenum and colon was increased and in all supplemented groups, the immunoglobulin A concentration in plasma was significantly higher (p < 0.05). The combined probiotics significantly increased villus length and the expression level of transforming growth factor-β in the jejunum (p < 0.05) but decreased the expression level of the jejunal tumour necrosis factor-α (p < 0.05). In addition, probiotics could regulate gut microbiota and increase microbial similarity coefficients for keeping piglet gut microbiota stable.     

Effect of an Escherichia coli F4/F18 bivalent oral live vaccine on gut health and performance of healthy weaned pigs

Oral live vaccines stimulate host immunity, but they could also affect intestinal mucosa development and gut microbiota of piglets during the postweaning. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of an oral vaccine against Escherichia coli F4 and F18 (Coliprotec F4/F18®), on gut functionality and integrity, growth performance and health status of postweaning piglets. A total of 96 weaned piglets (23.30 ± 1.85 days of age; 7334 ± 1039 g BW) were divided into two groups (16 replicates/group; three piglets/replicate) as follows: (1) Control (CO), fed a standard diet (prestarter up to 14 days, then starter feed); (2) Treated (TRT): as CO but vaccinated with Coliprotec F4/F18® at weaning (day 0). Piglets were weighed at day 0 and weekly until day 35. Individual faecal score was recorded daily. Piglets were sacrificed at days 10 (1/3 of total) and 35 (2/3). Samples of jejunum mucosa and of cecum content were collected for morphometric, immunohistochemistry analysis and for microbiota profile analysis, respectively. Data were fitted using a linear model including treatment, class of starting BW as fixed factors and litter as random factor. From days 0 to 7, piglets from the TRT group tended to have a higher average daily gain (+22.6%, P = 0.08) and average daily feed intake compared to the CO group (+13.2%, P = 0.022). Gain to feed ratio was lower in the TRT group from days 14 to 35 (?6.6%, P = 0.011). From days 7 to 14, the TRT group had a higher diarrhoea index (?199%, P < 0.001). Crypt depth was higher in the CO group (+10.9%, P = 0.04) at day 10, but not at day 35. Jejunal expression of Claudin-4 (probability of having a score = 3) was higher in the TRT group at day 10 (CO = 1.50% vs TRT = 2.69%, P < 0.0001) and day 35 (CO = 1.29% vs TRT = 1.92%, P = 0.012). Oral vaccine affected beta diversity at day 10 (P = 0.040; R² = 0.05) and increased the abundance of specific taxa and genera in the cecum at day 10, including Prevotella (lg2FC = 23.2, FDR < 0.001). The results showed how an Escherichia coli-based vaccine supplied to weaned pigs can promote gut health by controlling symptoms of the postweaning perturbation in the first 2 weeks postweaning. In addition, the vaccine strains showed a probiotic-like effect by modulating gut microbiota favouring the establishment of beneficial bacteria, and by promoting gut barrier integrity.     

Effect of crate opening from day 3 postpartum to weaning on nursing and suckling behaviour in domestic pigs

Temporary crating may be a more acceptable housing system for lactating sows than permanent crating and loose-housing because it combines benefits of both systems while reducing some of their limitations. It remains unclear whether nursing and sucking behaviour is influenced after crate opening. The aim of this study was to assess the short- (24 h post-crate opening) and long-term (day 25 postpartum (pp.)) effects of opening the farrowing crate from day 3 pp. to weaning on nursing and suckling behaviour. Sows were crated from 5 days prepartum either to weaning (permanently crated group; n = 14) or 3 days pp. (temporarily crated group; n = 13). Sows and their litters were observed on days 4 and 25. Duration of pre- and post-massages, nursing termination, number of piglets missing milk ejection and number of piglets fighting during pre- and post-massages were scored at 15-s intervals. Nursing success (i.e. with or without milk ejection) was also recorded. Data were analysed using PROC GLM and PROC GENMOD of SAS including housing, litter size and parity as fixed effects. Nursing behaviour did not differ between sows housed in temporary crates and those housed in permanent crates on days 4 and 25 pp., that is, same number of nutritive nursings (NNs), same proportion of non-NNs, same duration of post-massages and same proportion of termination of post-massages. There was only a housing effect on day 25; with sows having longer pre-massages in permanent crates (P < 0.05). Suckling behaviour was overall similar between treatments. There were no differences in the number of piglets attending pre- and post-massages, proportion of piglets fighting during pre-and post-massages and the proportion of piglets missing milk ejection on both days. The only housing effect was found on day 25 during which fewer piglets attended post-massages (P < 0.05) in permanent crates. Sows with larger litters terminated post-massages more often (P < 0.05), allowed shorter post-massages (P < 0.05) on day 4, and had more piglets miss milk ejection on days 4 and 25 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the results of this study showed that housing had a very limited effect on nursing and suckling behaviour. Sow and piglet behaviours were not altered after crate opening (short-term effect) and nursing was to some extent calmer (shorter pre-massages and more piglets attended post-massages) in temporary crates on day 25. Increased litter size impaired nursing and suckling behaviour of sows and piglets independently of the housing system.