Wood usage and its influence on the environment from the Neolithic until the Iron Age: a case study of the graves at Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany)

The investigated area near Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany) was used as a burial ground from the Neolithic until the Iron Age. Due to modern agriculture, the above-ground funerary monuments have been destroyed. Rescue excavations from 1976 to 1996 recovered the archaeological remains. In addition to the archaeological reassessment of the findings, further scientific analyses were carried out. The results of the charcoal analyses are presented in this paper. The overall spectrum of wood species represents the typical species composition of mixed oak forests. Over the whole investigated time span (Neolithic–Iron Age) these species alternate with a second group of taxa: species benefiting from better light conditions. In times of intensive human impact, these light-demanding taxa gained considerable importance, showing the opening of the wooded landscape. In phases with less human impact, a regeneration of mixed oak forest is detectable. For the Neolithic it was possible to develop a more detailed picture of wood usage based on 162 radiocarbon dates of 106 samples. These illustrate considerable changes during the Neolithic, which resulted in a varied pattern of open land and closed forest influenced by human presence and land use. Another important aspect of the Flintbek area is the handling of samples deriving from different contexts. While charcoal samples related to fire usage or grave constructions contain only slight contamination, samples from fillings (pits, burial layers) are characterized by charcoal dating being either too old or even too young for the archaeological context.     

Intensification of agriculture in southwestern Germany between the Bronze Age and Medieval period,based on archaeobotanical data from Baden-Württemberg

Vegetation History and Archaeobotany - A system of farming with an alternation of land use between being cultivated or left fallow as grassland (Feldgraswirtschaft) developed in southwestern...     

Some aspects of Late Iron Age agriculture based on the first results of an archaeobotanical investigation at Corvin tér, Budapest, Hungary

Until now, very little was known about the agriculture of the Late Iron Age in Hungary. This paper describes the first results of an archaeobotanical examination of a late Iron Age, Celtic settlement in Budapest. It is the first systematically sampled and representatively investigated site of this time period in Hungary. Most of the samples come from different types of pits, which were subjectively sampled. The macrofossils were carbonised and, apart from many seeds and fruit stones, consisted mostly of charcoal. Among the seed remains both cultivated and wild species were present. The spectrum of cultivated plants was marked by a large number of cereals. The dominant cereals were Triticum spelta L. (spelt wheat) and Panicum millaceum L. (broomcorn millet), but also common were Avena sativa L., Avena sp. (oats), Triticum monococcum L. (einkorn), Hordeum vulgare L. (barley); Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum L./Desf./L., incl. T. compactum Host. (bread wheat, including club wheat). Secale cereale L. (rye) and Triticum dicoccum (Schrank) Schübl. (emmer) were rare and seemed to be less important. The weeds and synanthropic vegetation, including ruderals, were represented by many taxa, and some of them also occurred in large amounts. The main cereals were sown as winter crops, judging from the rarely occurring of plants accompanying the cereals. Wild fruits contributed to the daily diet, too – as seen from the stones of Cornus mas (cornelian cherry), Crataegus sp. (hawthorn) and Prunus spinos (sloe, blackthorn). There were no finds of cultivated fruits. Received October 19, 2001 / Accepted January 30, 2002     

A high-resolution Late-Glacial – Holocene pollen diagram from Pian di Gembro (Central Alps, Northern Italy)

The local and regional history of vegetation and climate, from the Late Glacial to the present, is represented in a new, high-resolution pollen diagram from Pian di Gembro (1350 m asl), ten ¹⁴C dates providing a reliable time control. An open pioneer vegetation dominated by Artemisia, Gramineae, and and Chenopodiaceae followed the retreat of the glaciers after the Last Glacial Maximum. Shrub vegetation with Juniperus, Alnus viridis, and Salix expanded soon after. Denser Betula-Pinus forests were present in Pian di Gembro around 12,320 B.P. Their extent was greatly reduced by the climatic cooling of the Younger Dryas, when open vegetation spread again. The beginning of the Holocene was marked by a considerable expansion in mixed oak taxa. Corylus immigrated to the site at 9,250 B.P. Picea and Abies expanded at 7,370 B.P., recording an abrupt change in the structure of the vegetational belts. A coeval climatic change is evidenced in the GRIP records and also detectable through oscillations of the timberline. Signs of human impact are present since late Atlantic, becoming more intense around 2,200 B.P. As pasture lands increased, Abies and Fagus slowly disappeared. The introduction of Castanea and Juglans is dated to Roman times, and Secale to the Middle Ages. Received February 4, 2002 / Accepted August 2, 2002     

Subsistence strategies of two Bronze Age hill-top settlements in the eastern Alps—Friaga/Bartholomäberg (Vorarlberg, Austria) and Ganglegg/Schluderns (South Tyrol, Italy)

Up to now, archaeobotanical investigations of prehistoric sites in the eastern Alpine region have been rare. Recent palaeoethnobotanical investigations of carbonised plant remains from two Bronze Age hill-top settlements, one located north and the other south of the main Alpine range, contribute essentially to the knowledge of subsistence strategies and husbandry regimes in the Alps in prehistoric periods. The principal cereals were Hordeum vulgare (hulled barley), Triticum dicoccon (emmer) and Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet). In general, hulled barley was the most important cereal crop in the eastern Alps. Legumes such as Vicia faba (horse bean) and Pisum sativum (pea) also occurred regularly in both hill-top settlements. In addition to these field crops, a large variety of wild plants was still gathered and contributed considerably to the daily diet. The arable weed flora suggests that crops were sown in spring and autumn and it indicates crop rotation in this period. The results of the plant macrofossils imply a complex pattern of plant resource utilisation in the Alpine area during the Bronze Age.     

The Early Bronze Age dendrochronology of Sovjan (Albania): A first tree-ring sequence of the 24th – 22nd c. BC for the southwestern Balkans

The archaeological site of Sovjan is situated on the edge of the Korçë Basin, southeastern Albania. Its remarkably long and well investigated stratigraphic sequence, spanning from the Neolithic till the Iron Age, makes it an important type- and reference-site for the whole region. At different periods of prehistory it was located on the shores of the former Lake Maliq that once filled the Korçë Basin, but was definitely drained in the 1940′s. These permanent wetland conditions on the site allowed for a high degree of preservation of organic material, especially wood. Based on the current knowledge, level 8 of Sovjan contains the best-preserved wooden material of all the Early Bronze Age sites in the Balkans. Through the combination of dendrochronology and Bayesian modelling, i.e. wiggle-matching, a floating 269-years long tree-ring chronology was constructed, with an absolute end-date range falling between 2158 and 2142 cal BC (2σ). It was possible to establish that the dwellings and the trackway associated with the last occupation phase of level 8 are contemporaneous. Additionally, with the help of the new dendrochronological data and based on previously published charcoal dates, the absolute chronology of the subsequent level 7 is being narrowed-down to a range from the mid-22nd to mid-20th c. cal BC (2σ). The Early Bronze Age layers of the archaeological site of Sovjan, which are particularly pertinent for the 3rd millennium chronology of the southwestern Balkans, can now be dated with high precision for the first time and hence offer a major chronological reference point in the region.     

Deep-water coral banks: an example from the “Calcare di Mendicino” (Upper Miocene, Northern Calabria, Italy)

Summary The “Calcare di Mendicino” is a mixed carbonatesiliciclastic informal unit of Miocene (Late Tortonian-Early Messinian age), that crops out extensively in the northwestern part of the Calabria. In the Scannelle quarry near Belsito (Cosenza), four stratigraphic sections were studied to define the sedimentological and paleoecological setting. The carbonate body records the development of a deep-water coral bank characterized by a low-diverse community of azooxanthellate scleractinian (Oculina andDendrophyllia) and stylasterine hydrozoans colonies. Two main stages of bioconstruction development can be distinguished: a thicket and a bank stage. Among the biostromal dwellers the more common are bryozoans, echinoids, benthic foraminifers, gastropods, and bivalves. A higher content of planktonic foraminifers occur in the thicket stage. The coral bank flourished within the aphotic zone, with deep currents loaded with nutrients and siliciclastic sediments. The upper part of the “Calcare di Mendicino” carbonate body has been affected by a pervasive dolomitization destroying almost completely the sedimentary structures and the biofacies. The lower part, the main object of this paper, preserves the microfacies but it experienced a widespread recrystallization obliterating the primary geochemical characteristics. The diagenetic history, partly hidden, reveals three main stages: primary marine with isopachous fibrous cements, deep burial with cavities infilled by sparry calcite, and meteoric-phreatic with dog-tooth cements.     

Palaeoecological evidence from buried topsoils and colluvial layers at the Bronze Age fortification Corneşti-Iarcuri,SW Romania: results from palynological,sedimentological, chronostratigraphical and plant macrofossil analyses

Vegetation History and Archaeobotany - Located in the Romanian Banat region, the Late Bronze Age (LBA) fortification Corneşti-Iarcuri is the largest known prehistoric settlement in Europe....     

Radiocarbon age of carbonate in fruits of Lithospermum from the early Bronze Age settlement of Hirbet ez-Zeraqōn (Jordan)

Uncarbonized fruits of the Boraginaceae occur widely in cultural layers of archaeological sites in the Mediterranean and the Near East. To date, interpreting their origin remains problematic. It is difficult for archaeobotanists to tell whether such fruits were deposited as part of the cultural layer or were introduced post-depositionally. In an attempt to answer this question for the early Bronze Age site of Hirbet ez-Zeraqon (Jordan), we used direct ¹⁴C dating of biogenic carbonate from calcareous fruits of Lithospermum. The radiocarbon ages of seven fossil samples of the fruits suggest that they originate from plants that grew during or around the time of occupation.     

Interglacial‐glacial cycles in the early Pleistocene of the Leffe basin (Northern Italy): Preliminary report

Palynological studies of the Leffe Basin lacustrine deposits (Lombard Pre‐Alps, Italy) reveal a succession of deciduous mesophytic arboreal communities, coniferous forests and brief phases of withdrawal of arboreal taxa. The pollen record can be easily correlated with a previous pollen diagram by Lona (1950). However, contrary to his interpretation, we believe that the cyclicity shown by vegetation dynamics cannot be correlated with the major glacial events that occurred in the Southern Alps, but perhaps with interglacial‐glacial cycles of moderate amplitude.     

Plant subsistence and environment at the Mesolithic site T?gerup, southern Sweden: new insights on the “Nut Age”

Pollen was analysed from a sediment sequence collected in the close vicinity of the Mesolithic settlement T?gerup, southern Sweden. Macroremains were also retrieved from numerous samples taken at the site of the archaeological excavations of Kongemose and Erteb?lle settlement phases, 6700–6000 b.c. and 5500–4900 b.c. respectively. Plants and other organic remains were well preserved in the refuse layers from the settlements embedded in the gyttja. The pollen record includes no clear indications of human impact on the vegetation during the Mesolithic. The occurrence of charcoal particles and pollen of grass and herbs associated with nutrient-rich soils are contemporaneous with the Kongemose settlement. The Erteb?lle settlement phase, although characterised by considerable dwelling activities less than a hundred metres from the pollen sampling site, is scarcely seen in the pollen data. Numerous finds of crushed dogwood stones from the Kongemose phase, often partly carbonised, suggest that these stones were used for the extraction of oil. Other plants found in the Kongemose refuse layers that may have been used are apples, cherries, raspberries, acorns and rowan-berries. Based on the abundance of hazelnut shells found at the studied site and in other studies of Mesolithic sites in southern Scandinavia it is proposed that these remains may testify to an important food supply rather than just use as a supplement to animal protein. It is also hypothesised that a regional decrease in hazel populations and thus hazelnut availability at the end of the Mesolithic may have motivated the adoption of Neolithic subsistence.     

Management on the basis of the best scientific data or integration of ecological research within management? Lessons learned from the Northern spotted owl saga on the connection between research and management in conservation biology

The case of the Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) has now become a classic case study in conservation biology, characterized by a harsh social battle but also by the quantity and quality of the research performed. Based on this example, I study the way the research-management interface was organized. The main lessons I have learned were: 1. laws that involve science in management are crucial but should be more precise; 2. scientific ad-hoc groups are useful reviewers of management plans and interpreters of the best scientific data available, even if more transparent scientific argumentation is needed on some points; 3. in such applied cases, even science that has not been strongly integrated with management can produce results that are useful for management; 4. stronger links between science and management appear necessary, but difficult to implement. This last point makes me wonder whether environmental laws should not more frequently target the incorporation of science into the management process itself rather than “only” basing management on the best scientific data available. On a more ecological level, perhaps the habitat issue has been underrated during the last few years compared to other emerging threats such as the invasion of the spotted owl range by barred owls.     

Climatic and environmental conditions from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000–3000 BP) in the Iberian Peninsula assessed using small-mammal assemblages

We have analyzed the palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate of the beginning of the Holocene in the Iberian Peninsula on the basis of the small-mammal assemblages from three sites within the geography of the Iberian Peninsula: Mirador (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), Colomera (Sant Esteve de la Sarga, Lleida) and Valdavara-1 (Becerreá, Lugo). These associations reveal that the palaeoenvironment was more humid than today in the sites under study, and the landscape was dominated by woodland and woodland margins in all the studied layers. Further, the climatic conditions were stable, but with winters colder than at present, above all in the Mediterranean area. Finally, our data have been compared with other environmental and climatic proxies, showing that human activities exerted little impact on the palaeoenvironmental conditions that occurred from 7000 to 3000 BP in the Iberian Peninsula.     

Northern origin and diversification in the central lowlands? – Complex phylogeography and taxonomy of widespread day geckos (Phelsuma) from Madagascar

Day geckos of the Phelsuma lineata group are widespread in Madagascar and have been historically split into numerous species and subspecies based almost exclusively on differences in coloration and body size. We apply phylogenetic and phylogeographic methods to examine the biogeography and taxonomy of these lizards, including explicit tests of various biogeographic predictions and based on a molecular data set covering much of the distribution ranges of all species and subspecies of P. lineata, P. dorsivittata, P. comorensis, P. hoeschi, P. kely, and P. pusilla in Madagascar (and the Comoros archipelago for P. comorensis). Sequences of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA and the nuclear RAG-1 gene fragment were determined from 376 samples, and a multigene mtDNA phylogeny of the species group was constructed for the main phylogroups identified in the 16S haplotype network. We used the 16S sequences to estimate the geographic location of the ancestor of each major mtDNA clade and to infer their demographic history using a variety of statistical tools. Our phylogeny separates the taxa analyzed into two well-supported major subclades mainly occurring in the north respectively east of the island. Mismatch distribution of samples together with rejection of neutrality, the results of Bayesian Skyline Plots analysis, and a star-like network suggests a recent demographic expansion for the P. l. lineata lineage into the eastern lowlands, while the highland (P. l. elanthana) and northern clades (P. dorsivittata and P. l. punctulata) show signatures of rather stable populations. A major genetic discontinuity observed coincided with a northern lowland stretch that separates mid-altitude rainforests in the north from those in the center and south. Our analysis points to numerous unsolved taxonomic problems in this group of geckos, especially in the small-sized taxa (P. hoeschi, P. kely, P. pusilla), and provides a basis for a future comprehensive taxonomic revision, which will require integrative analysis of molecular, morphological and chromatic data as well as careful examination of type specimens.     

Middle/Late Bronze Age plant communities and their exploitation in the Cávado Basin (NW Portugal) as shown by charcoal analysis: the significance and co-occurrence of Quercus (deciduous) – Fabaceae

Plant communities and their possible exploitation during Late Prehistory are studied based on charcoal data from four archaeological sites. Settlement location in the area appears to have been chosen on the basis of easy access to rivers and good arable land. Quercus (deciduous) and Fabaceae appear to have been the main source of wood; this is in agreement with previous data from north-western Portugal. The abundance of Fabaceae, which thrive in open well-lit areas, is seen as a direct consequence of woodland clearance. The co-occurrence of Quercus (deciduous) and Fabaceae appears as a distinctive feature in north-western Portugal during Late Prehistory and Protohistory. Fabaceae have remained a familiar component of the vegetation cover ever since. Pinus pinaster is present as isolated individuals, in contrast to its present-day abundance.     

A palaeocarpological study of Neolithic and Bronze Age levels of the Buraco da Pala rock-shelter (Bragança,Portugal)

Palaeocarpological (archaeobotanical) analysis of Neolithic and Bronze Age levels of the Buraco da Pala site (Bragança, Portugal) provides evidence of considerable agricultural activity. Triticum, Hordeum and Vicia predominated, though Pisum, Lens, Vitis, Linum and Papaver were also found. Most wheat grains were spheroidal and were identified as Triticum aestivum subsp. sphaerococcum, in disagreement with recent suggestions that taxa with spheroidal grains have never been present in the Iberian Peninsula. Quercus and Pinus seed indicated that gathering activities supplemented agricultural production.     

Diatoms from Alto Adige/Südtirol (Northern Italy): characterization of assemblages and their application for biological quality assessment in the context of the Water Framework Directive

The Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC (WFD) requires the analysis of biological elements of aquatic ecosystems to assess water quality. Diatoms are the component of the periphyton most commonly used to classify lotic environments. Within the context of the WFD the concept of ‘reference conditions’ was introduced and biological quality of watercourses is expressed as Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR). This study was carried out in Alto Adige/Südtirol (Province of Bolzano-Bozen, northern Italy), belonging to the Alpine eco-region, and to the hydro-ecoregion Inner Alps. During 2006–2009, epilithic diatoms were sampled from monitoring and reference sites of seven stream types. Diatom assemblages were analysed with TWINSPAN and CCA analyses to investigate species association and distribution in relation to stream characteristics. Altitude and geology resulted to be the most important factors influencing diatom assemblage composition, and were used to describe new stream types. Indicator species analysis was used to characterize reference assemblages. The biological quality of watercourses was assessed using different diatom indices: Specific Pollution sensitivity Index (IPS), Eutrophication and Pollution Index with Diatoms (EPI-D), Trophic Index (TI). We tested also the Intercalibration Common Metric index (ICM).     

International migrations toward the city of Parma (Northern Italy): Evolution during a decade (1989–2000)

The population of Parma can be considered a paradigm in order to describe the rapid demographic transformations characterizing Northern Italy communities, in which immigration flows play undoubtedly an important role. The present study uses data from the ‘Osservatorio Biodemografico’ (Biodemographic Observatory), a data bank set up in 1989 with the aim to analyze longitudinally the dynamics of that urban population. This data bank traces individual and family life-histories since 12 years, updating them year by year. The presence of migrants has significantly risen in this last decade: at the beginning of 1989, foreign people living in Parma were 1.341 (751 men and 590 women; 0.78% of the resident population); in the year 2000 foreign residents were 6.491 (3.583 men and 2.908 women; 3.9% of the resident population). Immigrants can be analyzed since their arrival in the city (or, better, since their inclusion in the Population Register) according to their characteristics and modalities of arrival, duration of permanence in Parma, co-residential patterns, dynamics of family rejoining. Numerous profiles, characterized by different and very complex individual and familial trajectories, have been described. Actually, despite of a common region of origin, migratory trajectories differ greatly one each other, in consequence of complex dynamics involving, sex age and kinship. We wish to thank the Fyssen Foundation, thanks to which the post doctoral studies of Dott.ssa Pellegrino are carried out.     

Fish fauna of the Camp dels Ninots locality (Pliocene; Caldes de Malavella,province of Girona,Spain) – first results with notes on palaeoecology and taphonomy

The Konservat-Lagerstätte locality Camp dels Ninots (Late Pliocene) in north-eastern Spain was interpreted as a maar lake and its sediments produced, among others, numerous fish fossils. These are represented by articulated (and semi-articulated) specimens and isolated bones and can be classified (within open nomenclature) to two Cyprinidae species: a barb Barbus (‘Luciobarbus’) sp. and a chub Leuciscus sp. The selected specimens of both groups are described and main morphological characters are presented. The composition of the fish fauna clearly indicates a freshwater environment. From the point of the view of taphonomy, it is possible to recognise two different types of preservations of the fish fossils at the locality: (i) larger specimens are preserved in good conditions, with occasional partial dislocations from their natural anatomical position, and relatively quickly buried by sediment, whereas (ii) a second type was observed in smaller specimens with supposed decomposition in the hypoxic environment and with slow burying.