The LOXL2 gene encodes a new lysyl oxidase-like protein and is expressed at high levels in reproductive tissues

We have reported in this paper the complete cDNA sequence, gene structure, and tissue-specific expression of LOXL2, a new amine oxidase and a member of an emerging family of human lysyl oxidases. The predicted amino acid sequence, from several overlapping cDNA clones isolated from placenta and spleen cDNA libraries, shared extensive sequence homology with the conserved copper-binding and catalytic domains of both lysyl oxidase (LOX) and the lysyl oxidase-like (LOXL) protein. These conserved domains are encoded by five consecutive exons within the LOX, LOXL, and LOXL2 genes that also maintained exon-intron structure conservation. In contrast, six exons encoding the amino-terminal domains diverged both in sequence and structure. Exon 1 of the LOXL2 gene does not encode a signal sequence that is present in LOX and LOXL, suggesting a different processing and intracellular localization for this new protein. Expression of the LOXL2 gene was detected in almost all tissues with the highest steady state mRNA levels in the reproductive tissues, placenta, uterus and prostate. In situ hybridization identified placental syncytial and cytotrophoblasts responsible for the synthesis of LOXL2 mRNA and demonstrated a spatial and temporal expression pattern unique to the LOXL2 gene.     

A novel human lysyl oxidase-like gene (LOXL4) on chromosome 10q24 has an altered scavenger receptor cysteine rich domain.

We have identified a novel 14-exon human lysyl oxidase-like gene, LOXL4, on chromosome 10q24. The cDNA and derived amino acid sequence of LOXL4 demonstrates a conserved C-terminal region including the characteristic copper-binding site, lysyl and tyrosyl residues and a cytokine receptor-like domain. One of the four N-terminal SRCR domains contains a 13 amino acid insertion encoded by a short exon not present within the closely homologous LOXL2 and LOXL3 genes. The 3.5-kb LOXL4 mRNA is present in pancreas and testis and at lower levels in several other tissues. Fibroblasts, smooth muscle and osteosarcoma (HOS) cells express LOXL4. No expression was detected in HCT-116 and DLD-1 colon, MCF-7 breast and DU-145 prostate cancer cell lines.     

Systematic screening of lysyl oxidase-like (LOXL) family genes demonstrates that LOXL2 is a susceptibility gene to intracranial aneurysms

Four lysyl oxidase family genes (LOXL1, LOXL2, LOXL3, and LOXL4), which catalyze cross-linking of collagen and elastin, were considered to be functional candidates for intracranial aneurysms (IA) and were extensively screened for genetic susceptibility in Japanese IA patients. Total RNA was isolated from four paired ruptured IA and superficial temporal artery (STA) tissue and examined by real-time RT-PCR. The expression of LOXL2 in the paired IA and STA tissues was elevated in the IA tissue. A total of 55 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of LOXL1-4 were genotyped for an allelic association study in 402 Japanese IA patients and 462 Japanese non-IA controls. Allelic associations were evaluated with the chi-square test and the permutation test especially designed for adjustment of multiple testing. SNPs of LOXL1 and LOXL4 were not significantly associated with IA, while several SNPs of LOXL2 and LOXL3 showed nominally significant associations in IA patients. We detected an empirically significant association with one SNP of LOXL2 in familial IA patients after adjustment for multiple testing [χ ² = 10.23, empirical P = 0.023, OR (95% CI) = 1.49 (1.17, 1.90)]. Furthermore, multilocus interaction was evaluated by multifactor dimensionality reduction analysis. We found that the SNPs of LOXL2 have an interactive effect with elastin (ELN) and LIM kinase 1 (LIMK1) that have been previously found to be associated with IA. In conclusion, one SNP of LOXL2 showed a significant association with IA individually, and we also detected a gene–gene interaction of LOXL2 with ELN/LIMK1, which may play an important role in susceptibility to IA. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Hiroyuki Akagawa and Akira Narita contributed equally to the work.     

Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) controls tumor-associated cell proliferation through the interaction with MARCKSL1

Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) is a member of the lysyl oxidase gene family that contributes to the invasiveness and metastasis in tumor progression. However, the role of LOXL2 in cellular signaling is incompletely understood. In this study, we investigated a possible mechanism of LOXL2 function in tumor metastases in vitro, using a human breast carcinoma cell line. Myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate-like 1 (MARCKSL1), a modulator in the regulation of cellular homeostasis, was identified as a LOXL2 interacting protein. We examined the binding domains that are required for the interaction between LOXL2 and MARCKSL1. The scavenger-receptor domain of LOXL2 was shown to interact with the N-terminal domain of MARCKSL1. Luciferase activity was noticeably reduced by the transfection of MARCKSL1 in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, over-expression of LOXL2 activates cell growth by inhibiting MARCKSL1-induced apoptosis. The effect of LOXL2 on cell cycle and apoptosis-related components was also confirmed through the silencing of LOXL2 expression. LOXL2 activates the FAK/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways, and MARCKSL1 suppresses LOXL2-induced oncogenesis. These insights supply evidence that LOXL2 promotes cell proliferation and inhibits apoptotic cell death. Taken together, our results indicate an underlying mechanism for an increase of LOXL2-related activity in breast tumor cells.     

A tissue-specific variant of the human lysyl oxidase-like protein 3 (LOXL3) functions as an amine oxidase with substrate specificity

The human lysyl oxidase-like 3 (LOXL3) encodes a member of the emerging family of lysyl oxidase (LOX) that functions as a copper-dependent amine oxidase. The LOXL3 protein contains four scavenger receptor cysteine-rich domains in the N terminus in addition to the C-terminal characteristic domains of the LOX family, such as a copper binding domain, a cytokine receptor-like domain and residues for the lysyl-tyrosyl quinone cofactor. Using BLASTN searches, we identified a LOXL3 variant LOXL3-sv1 that lacked the sequences corresponding to exons 1, 2, 3, and 5 of LOXL3. LOXL3-sv1 showed an exon-intron structure distinct from LOXL3, additionally containing an 80-bp sequence corresponding to intron 3 of LOXL3 in the 5'-UTR and a 561-bp sequence corresponding to the 3'-flanking genomic region of exon 14 in the 3'-UTR. LOXL3-sv1 was predicted to encode a polypeptide of 392 amino acids that contains the C-terminal domains required for amine oxidase activity but lacks the N-terminal SRCR domains 1, 2, and 3. The recombinant LOXL3-sv1 protein showed a beta-aminopropionitrile-inhibitable amine oxidase activity toward elastin and collagen with substrate specificity. In RT-PCR assays with various human tissues, LOXL3-sv1 and LOXL3 showed distinct expression patterns. Further, luciferase reporter assays revealed a strong promoter element in intron 3 that probably functions as a regulatory region for the expression of LOXL3-sv1. These findings strongly indicate that LOXL3 encodes two variants, LOXL3 and LOXL3-sv1, both of which function as amine oxidases with distinct tissue and substrate specificities from one another.     

人LOXL2启动子的鉴定与初步分析

LOXL2（lysyl oxidase like 2）是赖氨酰氧化酶（LOX）家族的一个重要成员,不仅可促进细胞外基质中胶原蛋白和弹性蛋白的交联,而且在转录调控、细胞信号转导以及细胞粘附等生物学过程中也有重要作用。多篇研究表明,LOXL2在多种肿瘤中高表达,且与多种肿瘤细胞的增殖迁移等生物学行为密切相关。LOXL2的表达调控机制目前仍不清楚。为了进一步研究LOXL2的转录调控机制,本研究克隆鉴定了LOXL2的启动子。首先通过数据库对LOXL2基因结构及潜在启动子区域进行了分析,进而以人的基因组DNA为模板,通过PCR定向克隆策略,构建了5个长度不同并覆盖LOXL2基因转录起始位点附近约1.7 kb的LOXL2基因启动子荧光素酶报告基因重组体。启动子活性分析结果表明,与对照组相比,5个重组体均具有启动子活性(P<0.05),提示LOXL2基因核心启动子定位于转录起始位点附近约185 bp的区域内。转录因子结合位点分析结果表明,LOXL2基因启动子缺乏典型的TATA盒,但含有GC盒以及Sp1、NFkB等潜在的转录因子结合位点。外源转染Sp1表达质粒能显著增强LOXL2基因启动子的活性（P<0.05）,提示Sp1能直接激活LOXL2的转录。     

Immediate early gene X1 (IEX-1) is organized in subnuclear structures and partially co-localizes with promyelocytic leukemia protein in HeLa cells

Immediate early gene X1 (IEX-1) represents a stress response gene involved in growth control and modulation of apoptosis. Here, we report a detailed analysis of IEX-1 with respect to its intracellular localization. By means of confocal laser scanning microscopy, a green fluorescent protein-IEX-1 fusion protein transfected into HeLa cells, as well as endogenous IEX-1, could be detected in distinct subnuclear structures. This particular subnuclear localization of IEX-1 was not observed with a green fluorescent protein-IEX-1 fusion protein lacking a putative nuclear localization sequence, along with a decreased effect on apoptosis. Double immunofluorescence staining revealed a partial co-localization of endogenous promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) and IEX-1 in these subnuclear structures. Nuclear localization of IEX-1 is also enhanced upon treatment of cells with leptomycin B, an inhibitor of the nuclear exporter CRM1. These observations indicate that IEX-1 is specifically shuttled to and from the nucleus. Overexpression experiments using PML isoforms III and IV revealed distinct intranuclear interaction of IEX-1 and PML. Coprecipitation experiments showed physical interaction between IEX-1 and PML. The close structural relation of IEX-1-containing nuclear subdomains and PML nuclear bodies suggests a function of IEX-1 related to the multiple functions of these unique subnuclear regions, particularly during stress response and growth control.     

Differential gene expression in retinoic acid-induced differentiation of acute promyelocytic leukemia cells, NB4 and HL-60 cells

Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) is characterized by a specific chromosome translocation t(15;17), which results in the fusion of the promyelocytic leukemia gene (PML) and retinoic acid receptor alpha gene (RARalpha). APL can be effectively treated with the cell differentiation inducer all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA). NB4 cells, an acute promyelocytic leukemia cell line, have the t(15;17) translocation and differentiate in response to ATRA, whereas HL-60 cells lack this chromosomal translocation, even after differentiation by ATRA. To identify changes in the gene expression patterns of promyelocytic leukemia cells during differentiation, we compared the gene expression profiles in NB4 and HL-60 cells with and without ATRA treatment using a cDNA microarray containing 10,000 human genes. NB4 and HL-60 cells were treated with ATRA (10(-6)M) and total RNA was extracted at various time points (3, 8, 12, 24, and 48h). Cell differentiation was evaluated for cell morphology changes and CD11b expression. PML/RARalpha degradation was studied by indirect immunofluoresence with polyclonal PML antibodies. Typical morphologic and immunophenotypic changes after ATRA treatment were observed both in NB4 and HL-60 cells. The cDNA microarray identified 119 genes that were up-regulated and 17 genes that were down-regulated in NB4 cells, while 35 genes were up-regulated and 36 genes were down-regulated in HL60 cells. Interestingly, we did not find any common gene expression profiles regulated by ATRA in NB4 and HL-60 cells, even though the granulocytic differentiation induced by ATRA was observed in both cell lines. These findings suggest that the molecular mechanisms and genes involved in ATRA-induced differentiation of APL cells may be different and cell type specific. Further studies will be needed to define the important molecular pathways involved in granulocytic differentiation by ATRA in APL cells.     

The role of lysyl oxidase-like 2 in the odontogenic differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells

Adult human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) are a unique population of precursor cells those are isolated from postnatal dental pulp and have the ability to differentiate into a variety of cell types utilized for the formation of a reparative dentin-like complex. Using LC-MS/MS proteomics approaches, we identified the proteins secreted from the differentiating hDPSCs in mineralization media. Lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) was identified as a protein that was down-regulated in the hDPSCs that differentiate into odontoblast-like cells. The role of LOXL2 has not been studied in dental pulp stem cells. LOXL2 mRNA levels were reduced in differentiating hDPSCs, whereas the levels of other LOX family members including LOX, LOXL1, LOXL3, and LOXL4, are increased. The protein expression and secretion levels of LOXL2 were also decreased during odontogenic differentiation. Recombinant LOXL2 protein treatment to hDPSCs resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in the early differentiation and the mineralization accompanying with the lower levels of odontogenic markers such as DSPP, DMP-1 and ALP. These results suggest that LOXL2 has a negative effect on the differentiation of hDPSCs and blocking LOXL2 can promote the hDPSC differentiation to odontoblasts.     

Functions of the Epstein-Barr virus EBNA1 protein in viral reactivation and lytic infection

EBNA1 is the only nuclear Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) protein expressed in both latent and lytic modes of infection. While EBNA1 is known to play several important roles in latent infection, the reason for its continued expression in lytic infection is unknown. Here we identified two roles for EBNA1 in the reactivation of latent EBV to the lytic cycle in epithelial cells. First, EBNA1 depletion in latently infected cells was shown to positively contribute to spontaneous EBV reactivation, showing that EBNA1 has a role in suppressing reactivation. Second, when the lytic cycle was induced, EBNA1 depletion decreased lytic gene expression and DNA amplification, showing that it positively contributed to lytic infection. Since we have previously shown that EBNA1 disrupts promyelocytic leukemia (PML) nuclear bodies, we investigated whether this function could account for the effects of EBNA1 on lytic infection by repeating the experiments with cells lacking PML proteins. In the absence of PML, EBNA1 did not promote lytic infection, indicating that the EBNA1-mediated PML disruption is responsible for promoting lytic infection. In keeping with this conclusion, PML silencing was found to be sufficient to induce the EBV lytic cycle. Finally, by generating cells with single PML isoforms, we showed that individual PML isoforms were sufficient to suppress EBV lytic reactivation, although PML isoform IV (PML IV) was ineffective because it was most efficiently degraded by EBNA1. Our results provide the first function for EBNA1 in lytic infection and show that EBNA1 interactions with PML IV lead to a loss of PML nuclear bodies (NBs) that promotes lytic infection.