Complete amino acid sequence of yeast thioltransferase (glutaredoxin)

The amino acid sequence of a thioltransferase isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae was determined. The protein was cleaved by trypsin, Staphylococcus aureus V8 protease, and cyanogen bromide. The peptides generated were purified by reverse phase HPLC. Sequencing of intact protein and its fragments were achieved by automated Edman degradation. The protein contains 106 amino acid residues with two cysteines. Yeast thioltransferase showed 51% structural similarity to pig liver thioltransferase and 34% to E. coli glutaredoxin.     

Structure of the rice glutaredoxin (thioltransferase) gene

We have isolated the gene encoding a glutaredoxin in rice (Oryza sativa L.) and determined the nucleotide (nt) sequence of about a 4.2 kb long. The cloned gene (gRASC8) was found to contain four exons interrupted by three introns. The first exon begins the ATG translation start codon and the four exons code for a protein composed of 112 amino acids. The tetrapeptide -Cys-Pro-Phe-Cys- [-Cys-Pro-Phe(Tyr)-Cys-] which constitutes an active site of Escherichia coli and mammalian glutaredoxins, was conserved. The nt sequence contained consensus TATA and CAAT boxes, and two polyadenylation signals. Southern blot analysis of rice genomic DNA suggests that there are two copies of the glutaredoxin genes in rice.     

Pap1-dependent regulation of the GSTII gene from the fission yeast

The genomic DNA encoding a second glutathione S-transferase (GSTII) was previously isolated from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Its expression was shown to be induced by menadione, mercuric chloride, o-dinitrobenzene, and NO-generating S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine using the GSTII-lacZ fusion harboring the 910 bp upstream region from the translational initiation point. In this study, the additional fusion plasmids pGST50-590 and pGST50-6R-590 were constructed to carry the 590 bp upstream region in the vectors YEp357 and YEp367R, respectively. The synthesis of beta-galactosidase from the fusion plasmid pGST50-590 was about 3-fold higher than that from the fusion plasmid pGST50-F, indicating the presence of negatively activating sequence in the -910 to approximately -590 region. It was also enhanced by the same agents, which induced the synthesis of beta-galactosidase from the fusion plasmid pGST50-F. The synthesis of beta-galactosidase from both fusion plasmids pGST50-F and pGST50-590 was enhanced by the overexpressed Pap1 protein. The synthesis of beta-galactosidase from the two YEp367R derivatives pGST50-6R-F and pGST50-6R-590 was greatly decreased in the Pap1-negative strain TP108-3C. These results propose the Pap1-dependent regulation of the GSTII gene from the fission yeast.     

The Pap1-independent induction by metal ions of a third gene encoding glutathione S-transferase gene from the fission yeast

A third gene that encodes glutathione S-transferase (GSTIII) was previously cloned from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Using the GSTIII-lacZ fusion plasmid pGDA-19, its expression was shown to be enhanced by various metal ions. In the present study, four additional fusion plasmids, pGDA-29, pGDA-39, PGDA-49, and pGDA-59, were designed to carry 998, 378, 276, and 115 bp upstream regions from the translational initiation point, respectively. The major activation region was located between -998 and -378 bp upstream of the GSTIII gene. Regulatory sequences that are responsible for the induction by metal ions reside between -998 and -378 bp and between -276 and -115 bp upstream of the gene. The overexpressed Pap1 exerts a repression effect on the GSTIII expression via -998 to approximately -378 bp region, whereas it exerts an activation effect on the GSTIII expression via -270 to approximately -115 bp region. However, the induction of the GSTIII gene by metal ions occurs independent of Pap1.     

Atf1 is a target of the mitogen-activated protein kinase Pmk1 and regulates cell integrity in fission yeast

In fission yeast, knockout of the calcineurin gene resulted in hypersensitivity to Cl(-), and the overexpression of pmp1(+) encoding a dual-specificity phosphatase for Pmk1 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) or the knockout of the components of the Pmk1 pathway complemented the Cl(-) hypersensitivity of calcineurin deletion. Here, we showed that the overexpression of ptc1(+) and ptc3(+), both encoding type 2C protein phosphatase (PP2C), previously known to inactivate the Wis1-Spc1-Atf1 stress-activated MAPK signaling pathway, suppressed the Cl(-) hypersensitivity of calcineurin deletion. We also demonstrated that the mRNA levels of these two PP2Cs and pyp2(+), another negative regulator of Spc1, are dependent on Pmk1. Notably, the deletion of Atf1, but not that of Spc1, displayed hypersensitivity to the cell wall-damaging agents and also suppressed the Cl(-) hypersensitivity of calcineurin deletion, both of which are characteristic phenotypes shared by the mutation of the components of the Pmk1 MAPK pathway. Moreover, micafungin treatment induced Pmk1 hyperactivation that resulted in Atf1 hyperphosphorylation. Together, our results suggest that PP2C is involved in a negative feedback loop of the Pmk1 signaling, and results also demonstrate that Atf1 is a key component of the cell integrity signaling downstream of Pmk1 MAPK.     

Replication checkpoint protein Mrc1 is regulated by Rad3 and Tel1 in fission yeast

Fission yeast Mrc1 (mediator of replication checkpoint 1) is an adaptor checkpoint protein required for Rad3-dependent activation of the checkpoint kinase Cds1 in response to arrest of replication forks. Here we report studies on the regulation of Mrc1 by phosphorylation. Replication arrest induced by hydroxyurea (HU) induces Mrc1 phosphorylation that is detected by a change in Mrc1 electrophoretic mobility. Phosphorylation is maintained in cds1Delta, rad3Delta, and tel1Delta single mutants but eliminated in a rad3Delta tel1Delta double mutant. Mrc1 has two clusters of S/TQ motifs that are potential Rad3/Tel1 phosphorylation sites. Mutation of six S/TQ motifs in these two clusters strongly impairs Mrc1 phosphorylation. Two motifs located at S604 and T645 are vital for HU resistance. The T645A mutation strongly impairs a Cds1-Mrc1 yeast two-hybrid interaction that is dependent on a functional forkhead-associated (FHA) domain in Cds1, indicating that phosphorylation of T645 mediates Mrc1's association with Cds1. Consistent with this model, the T645 region of Mrc1 effectively substitutes for the T11 region of Cds1 that is thought to be phosphorylated by Rad3 and to mediate FHA-dependent oligomerization of Cds1. The S/TQ cluster that includes S604 is needed for Mrc1's increased association with chromatin in replication-arrested cells. These data indicate that Rad3 and Tel1 regulate Mrc1 through differential phosphorylation to control Cds1.     

High-level expression of pig liver thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) in Escherichia coli

We report the first high-level expression of a mammalian thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) in Escherichia coli. A NcoI site (CCATGG) was introduced into the cDNA encoding pig liver thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) by site-directed mutagenesis, in which the first G of the original sequence, GCATGG, was replaced by a C. The altered cDNA was cloned into an expression vector, plasmid pKK233-2, between the unique NcoI and HindIII sites and expressed in E. coli JM105 at a high level (8% of total soluble protein) after 6 h of isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside induction. The soluble and unfused product was measured by the thiol-transferase thiol-disulfide exchange assay and immunoblotting analysis. The recombinant enzyme was purified to a single band as judged by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing. The amino acid composition of the expressed enzyme agreed with that of the known sequence of pig liver thioltransferase (glutaredoxin). N-terminal sequence analysis revealed that unlike the native pig liver protein which is N-acetylated, the recombinant enzyme was unblocked at the N terminus (alanine). Various kinetic properties of the recombinant enzyme with regard to the exchange reaction were identical with those of the native enzyme.     

Mammalian thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) and protein disulfide isomerase have dehydroascorbate reductase activity

Homogeneous native and recombinant porcine liver thioltransferase (glutaredoxin), bovine thymus and human placenta thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) were examined for dehydroascorbate reductase activity (EC 1.8.5.1) involving the direct catalytic reduction of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) by glutathione. Each enzyme had substantial activity with apparent Km and Vmax for dehydroascorbate between 0.2 and 2.2 mM and 6-27 nmol min-1, respectively, and for gluathione between 1.6 and 8.7 mM and 11-30 nmol min-1, respectively. In the presence of purified bovine liver thioredoxin reductase, homogeneous bovine liver thioredoxin failed to reduce DHA to ascorbic acid as measured by NADPH oxidation. Highly purified bovine liver protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) reacted directly with DHA and GSH to catalyze the reduction of DHA to ascorbic acid. The apparent Km for DHA was 1.0 mM and the Vmax was 8 nmol min-1, and for GSH were 3.9 mM and 14 nmol min-1, respectively. These results suggest that thioltransferase and PDI contribute to the regeneration of oxidized ascorbic acid in mammalian cells, and based on their cellular location, thioltransferase is proposed to be the major cytoplasmic activity, whereas interaction of DHA with microsomal membrane PDI may catalyze regeneration of ascorbic acid and initiate oxidation of intralumenal protein thiols to disulfides.     

The meiotic recombination checkpoint is regulated by checkpoint rad+ genes in fission yeast

During the course of meiotic prophase, intrinsic double-strand breaks (DSBs) must be repaired before the cell can engage in meiotic nuclear division. Here we investigate the mechanism that controls the meiotic progression in Schizosaccharomyces pombe that have accumulated excess meiotic DSBs. A meiotic recombination-defective mutant, meu13Delta, shows a delay in meiotic progression. This delay is dependent on rec12+, namely on DSB formation. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that meiotic DSB repair in meu13Delta was retarded. We also found that the delay in entering nuclear division was dependent on the checkpoint rad+, cds1+ and mek1+ (the meiotic paralog of Cds1/Chk2). This implies that these genes are involved in a checkpoint that provides time to repair DSBs. Consistently, the induction of an excess of extrinsic DSBs by ionizing radiation delayed meiotic progression in a rad17(+)-dependent manner. dmc1Delta also shows meiotic delay, however, this delay is independent of rec12+ and checkpoint rad+. We propose that checkpoint monitoring of the status of meiotic DSB repair exists in fission yeast and that defects other than DSB accumulation can cause delays in meiotic progression.     

The primary structure and properties of thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) from human red blood cells.

Thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) was purified from human red blood cells essentially as described previously (Mieyal JJ et al., 1991a, Biochemistry 30:6088-6097). The primary sequence of the HPLC-pure enzyme was determined by tandem mass spectrometry and found to represent a 105-amino acid protein of molecular weight 11,688 Da. The physicochemical and catalytic properties of this enzyme are common to the group of proteins called glutaredoxins among the family of thiol:disulfide oxidoreductases that also includes thioredoxin and protein disulfide isomerase. Although this human red blood cell glutaredoxin (hRBC Grx) is highly homologous to the 3 other mammalian Grx proteins whose sequences are known (calf thymus, rabbit bone marrow, and pig liver), there are a number of significant differences. Most notably an additional cysteine residue (Cys-7) occurs near the N-terminus of the human enzyme in place of a serine residue in the other proteins. In addition, residue 51 of hRBC Grx displayed a mixture of Asp and Asn. This result is consistent with isoelectric focusing analysis, which revealed 2 distinct bands for either the oxidized or reduced forms of the protein. Because the enzyme was prepared from blood combined from a number of individual donors, it is not clear whether this Asp/Asn ambiguity represents inter-individual variation, gene duplication, or a deamidation artifact of purification.     

GSH-dependent peroxidase activity of the rice (Oryza sativa) glutaredoxin,a thioltransferase

Glutaredoxin (Grx) is a 12-kDa thioltransferase that reduces disulfide bonds of other proteins and maintains the redox potential of cells. In addition to its oxidoreductase activity, we report here that a rice Grx (OsGrx) can also function as a GSH-dependent peroxidase. Because of this antioxidant activity, OsGrx protects glutamine synthetase from oxidative damage. Individually replacing the conserved Cys residues in OsGrx with Ser shows that Cys(23), but not Cys(26), is essential for the thioltransferase and GSH-dependent peroxidase activities. Kinetic characterization of OsGrx reveals that the maximal catalytic efficiency (V(max)/K(m)) is obtained with cumene hydroperoxide rather than H(2)O(2) or t-butyl hydroperoxide.     

The fission yeast FHIT homolog affects checkpoint control of proliferation and is regulated by mitochondrial electron transport

Genetic analysis has strongly implicated human FHIT (Fragile Histidine Triad) as a tumor suppressor gene, being mutated in a large proportion of early‐stage cancers. The functions of the FHIT protein have, however, remained elusive. Here, we investigated aph1⁺, the fission yeast homolog of FHIT, for functions related to checkpoint control and oxidative metabolism. In sublethal concentrations of DNA damaging agents, aph1Δ mutants grew with a substantially shorter lag phase. In aph1Δ mutants carrying a hypomorphic allele of cds1 (the fission yeast homolog of Chk2), in addition, increased chromosome fragmentation and missegregation were found. We also found that under hypoxia or impaired electron transport function, the Aph1 protein level was strongly depressed. Previously, FHIT has been linked to regulation of the human 9‐1‐1 checkpoint complex constituted by Hus1, Rad1, and Rad9. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the levels of all three 9‐1‐1 proteins are all downregulated by hypoxia in similarity with Aph1. Moreover, deletion of the aph1⁺ gene reduced the Rad1 protein level, indicating a direct relationship between these two proteins. We conclude that the fission yeast FHIT homolog has a role in modulating DNA damage checkpoint function, possibly through an effect on the 9‐1‐1 complex, and that this effect may be critical under conditions of limiting oxidative metabolism and reoxygenation.     

The polyubiquitin gene is essential for meiosis in fission yeast

We isolated a novel sporulation-deficient mutant of Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The mutant did not have a mitotic growth defect but aborted meiosis at the first or the second division with condensed chromosomes that failed to separate, abnormal spindle(s), and disintegrated spindle pole bodies (SPBs). During the first division, the centromeres were pulled to near the spindle poles but condensed divalent chromosomes remained at the center. The failure to proceed to anaphase was also observed during a time-lapse recording of a SPB protein tagged with green fluorescent protein. The polyubiquitin gene ubi4(+), which encoded eight ubiquitins fused in tandem, complemented this mutant. The mutation, an A to G substitution, was identified within the ubi4(+) gene at the ATG initiation codon. Disruption of the ubi4(+) gene produced the same phenotypes. The ubi4(+) mRNA was strongly induced for meiosis. However, ubiquitin increases only slightly, suggesting that the role of the polyubiquitin gene is to supply ubiquitin that is consumed by unidentified mechanisms. Before the ubi4 mutant cells entered meiosis, ubiquitin was greatly decreased indicating that shortage of ubiquitin caused abortion of meiosis. This work provides insights for the role of polyubiquitin gene and importance of ubiquitination in SPB integrity at the meiotic divisions.