Successfully Governing the Commons: Principles of Social Organization in an Andean Irrigation System

Throughout the world it is unusual to find irrigation systems that work well, distributing water efficiently and with minimal conflict, especially in situations where the resource is scarce. This paper describes one such system in the Peruvian Andes, a peasant village where irrigation and water management are handled in an unusual way. It analyzes the village principles of social organization, showing that these create a situation of equity and transparency which provides people with a strong incentive to obey the rules and conserve water. By doing so, they are directly maximizing the frequency of irrigation, a benefit that is the same for everyone using a given source of water. The system is argued to be a highly effective and sustainable way of dealing with a scarce and fluctuating resource.     

Perceived benefits of littoral wetlands in Uganda: a focus on the Nabugabo wetlands

Wetlands, commonly called swamps in Uganda, are estimated to cover about 13% of the total land surface area (about 30,000 km²) of the country and represent a considerable ecological, social and economic value. In 1989, the Ugandan government formerly recognised that wetlands need to be conserved and contribute considerably to the National economy and rural livelihood. The present analysis is focused on the Nabugabo wetland ecosystem. Located in Central Uganda, it is an important part of the extensive system of wetlands that surround Lake Victoria. The Nabugabo wetland is a source of important resources that are basic to the local economy, including fishing, water utilization, agriculture, livestock, wetland plants for construction and more recently, tourism. Investment in the area is low and a large percentage of the local community depends on the wetland resources for basic sustenance needs. After achieving Ramsar status, demarcation and conservation activities were initiated by the local and national leaders. However, these conservation efforts have provoked conflicts between the land owners and the policy makers, in particular to the demarcation of areas for conservation In the present analysis, we examine the benefits, perceived by local leaders and community members, of the wetland and its services, as well as views towards its conservation and management. The results show that differences between the community leaders and member exist regarding the perceived benefits of the wetlands. Tourism, while providing some opportunities for local persons is not always viewed positively. Conservation activities are viewed positively but some questions remain as to whether such efforts help or hinder the local population, in particular regarding access to basic resources.     

慢速渗滤土地处理系统中优先有机物的迁移、归宿与生态风险

研究了沈阳西部城市污水慢速渗滤土地处理系统中优先有机污染物的迁移和残留情况,结果表明,土地处理系统和当地传统污灌区耕作层土壤、地下水中的优先有机污染物的总含量分别高于对照区（清水灌区）１倍和４倍以上;系统出水、地下水和传统污灌区地下水中的优先有机污染物的浓度有相似的分布、说明污灌水中的有机污染物对土壤和地下水产生一定程度的影响,但土地处理系统和当地传统污灌区生产的大米中,优先有机污染物含量与对照区相比未见显著差异．     

Is a compromise possible in Russia between animal advocates and researchers who use animals in harmful experiments?

The current situation relating to the use of laboratory animals in Russia, which is primarily characterised by the complete absence of legislation for their protection, is examined and discussed. This lack of regulation causes well-founded protests by animal protection organisations and a number of reputable politicians. It also has a negative influence on the quality of medical and biological research results that are obtained through the use of experimental animals in Russia. The opinion is expressed that the Russian scientific community should be able to build upon the experience of other countries - in particular, members of the European Union, where there is an effective system of self-control over the ethical and legislative regulation of animal-based research. It is suggested that, in Russia, the basic animal protection principles of the Three Rs should be introduced, when the decision on whether to finance scientific projects involving the use of animals is being made.     

A new species of small-eared shrew in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptotis thomasi</Emphasis> species group from Costa Rica (Mammalia: Eulipotyphla: Soricidae)

We describe a new species of small-eared shrew, genus Cryptotis Pomel, 1848 (Eulipotyphla: Soricidae), from near the community of Monteverde in the Tilarán highlands of northwestern Costa Rica. The new species is immediately distinguished from all other Costa Rican shrews its large size and long tail. Morphologically, it belongs to the Cryptotis thomasi group of small-eared shrews, a clade that is more typically distributed in the Andes Cordillera and other highland regions of northern South America. The new Costa Rican species and the Panamanian endemic Cryptotis endersi Setzer, 1950 are the only two members of this species group known to occur in Central America. Like most other members of the C. thomasi group for which the postcranial skeleton has been studied, the new species tends be more ambulatory (rather than semi-fossorial) when compared with other members of the genus. Our survey efforts over several decades failed to locate a population of the new species, and we discuss its conservation status in light of its limited potential distribution in the Tilarán highlands and the significant climatic change that has been documented in the Monteverde region during the past four decades.     

The role of community engagement in addressing bystander risks in research: The case of a Zika virus controlled human infection study

There is limited guidance on how to assess the ethical acceptability of research risks that extend beyond research participants to third parties (or “research bystanders”). Community or stakeholder engagement has been proposed as one way to address potential harms to community members, including bystanders. Despite widespread agreement on the importance of community engagement in biomedical research, this umbrella term includes many different goals and approaches, agreement on which is ethically required or recommended for a particular context. We analyse the case of a potential Zika virus human challenge trial to assess whether and how community engagement can help promote the ethical acceptability of research posing risks to bystanders. We conclude that, in addition to having intrinsic value, community engagement can improve the identification of bystander risks, effective approaches to minimizing them, and transparency about bystander risks for host communities.     

The effect of a large-scale irrigation scheme on the fish community structure and integrity of a subtropical river system in South Africa

Large scale irrigation schemes are vitally important for food security in developing countries. This is especially relevant in subtropical countries where there is pressure on their water resources. However, the potential impacts on the fish communities of the rivers associated with these irrigation systems are extensive and potentially devastating. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of the Vaalharts Irrigation Scheme (VHIS) on the fish community of two rivers (Harts and Vaal rivers) in the subtropical region of South Africa. The fish community was assessed during a three year period from 2007 to 2009 together with environmental and habitat quality parameters. A multivariate approach together with a local biotic index was used to determine the present ecological state and the environmental drivers responsible for the fish community structure. The results indicated that the fish community was in a largely natural state at the start of the VHIS and increasingly became modified due to various environmental parameters being affected by the irrigation scheme. Annual variation in the fish community structures was high while nitrate, zinc and sulphates corresponded with changes in the fish community. The outcome of the study highlighted that a lack of long term monitoring of fish community structures together with environmental and habitat parameters are a major challenge in many developing countries that can potentially affect management of irrigation schemes and the fish communities associated with the aquatic ecosystems.     

Agricultural Intensification, Market Participation, and Household Demography in the Peruvian Andes

The causes of agricultural intensification in a peasant community in the north central Andes are explored using a methodology derived from the tradition of Systems Ecology. Hypotheses derived from different research traditions??mainly development economics and anthropology??regarding the causes of intensification are integrated and evaluated for their relative effects. It is found that among the variables, household size is better at explaining the degree of intensity with which labor and technology are employed. The results suggest that technologically-driven agricultural intensification is generally forced upon households by the diminishing returns of their labor, and that this process is normally accompanied by increased financial debt for those peasant households who remain in agriculture and do not completely migrate to regional urban centers.     

The San Lucas mountain range in Colombia: how much conservation is owed to the violence?

The imminence of forest conversion in the northern Andean region requires a careful evaluation of the social, political and economic context in which environmental efforts take place in order to achieve conservation. Through its socioeconomic effects violent conflict can result in threats pertinent to both conservation and resource management schemes. A survey of the San Lucas mountain range, at the northern tip of the Colombian Central Andes, is presented as a case study of factors associated with violent conflict that may hinder or enhance conservation in this complex social and political setting. Instability in land use and tenure associated with armed conflict were identified as major pressures associated with further conversion of tropical forest habitats; while low rates of settlement and measures enforced by armed rule were very effective in preserving certain tracts of forest. War certainly alleviates demographic pressure from settlers, but contemporary patterns of colonization in San Lucas suggest that armed conflict is detrimental to conservation purposes and to key members of the biological community.     

Conversion of Andean montane forests into plantations: Effects on soil characteristics,microorganisms, and microarthropods

Tropical montane forests in the Andes are subjected to deforestation and subsequent transformation into pastures. Abandoned pastures are frequently reforested by planting monoculture timber plantations, resulting in reduced aboveground diversity and changes in soil characteristics compared to primary forests. In this study, we evaluated differences in soil properties (litter layer thickness, pH, water content, and C-to-N ratio) between degraded primary montane forest and monoculture pine (Pinus patula) and alder (Alnus acuminata) plantations and their effects on density, diversity, and community structure of litter and soil-living mesofauna, with focus on oribatid mites (Acariformes). The study was performed in a montane region in the southern Ecuadorian Andes (2,000–2,600 m a.s.l.). C-to-N ratios in the litter and upper 5 cm soil layer were higher in pine plantations, while other soil characteristics were similar between vegetation types. Surprisingly, microbial biomass and density of soil mesofauna in the litter layer did not differ between vegetation types, while density and species richness of oribatid mites were higher in pine plantations. Community structure of oribatid mites differed between vegetation types with only a few species overlapping. The results indicate that quality and diversity of litter were not the major factors regulating the mesofauna community. Instead, soil animals benefited from increased habitat structure in thicker litter layers and potentially increased availability of root-derived resources. Overall, the results suggest that from a soil animal perspective, monoculture plantations are less detrimental than commonly assumed and enrichment of abandoned plantations with native tree species may help to restore tropical montane forests.     

Irrigation mix: how to include water sources when assessing freshwater consumption impacts associated to crops

Purpose

Impacts of activities related to freshwater use are gaining interest among the life cycle assessment (LCA) community and several approaches are nowadays available in the literature. However, the general trend still is to ignore the assessment of its impact or, luckily, its inclusion on the inventory. This paper describes a procedure to incorporate water source information at the inventory level and evaluate the influence of that profile on the environmental impact assessment level.

Methods

The methodology lies on two main elements: the “irrigation mix” concept and the freshwater ecosystem impact indicator already defined in the literature. By doing so, the results obtained can be easily integrated in LCA studies of irrigated crops, or more complex studies with agricultural ingredients, where only information regarding the amount (but not the origin) of irrigation water is available.

Results and discussion

The results make more visible the benefits associated to the use of nonconventional, artificial water sources, by quantifying the improvement achieved on the water stress of a specific basin. Besides, the irrigation mix gives a better picture of the real contribution of irrigation to other impact categories (here, the global warming potential). Finally, the results were applied in a LCA study of lettuce production (an irrigated product cultivated in the studied region), and the method was analyzed against the criteria defined by the International Reference Life Cycle Data System handbook.

Conclusions

The inclusion of the water mix in the inventory level (irrigation profile) as well as in the impact assessment level (water stress index) is straightforward to apply by LCA practitioners, resulting in a more realistic assessment of the impacts of freshwater consumption associated to crops. The implementation on a case study allowed the quantification of promoting alternative water sources in a region suffering from significant water stress as well as to improve knowledge on the environmental impact associated to freshwater consumed by one of the irrigated crops grown there. We recommend using the approach defined here in order to check its applicability to other river basins and products.     

Deforestation and Benthic Indicators: How Much Vegetation Cover Is Needed to Sustain Healthy Andean Streams?

Deforestation in the tropical Andes is affecting ecological conditions of streams, and determination of how much forest should be retained is a pressing task for conservation, restoration and management strategies. We calculated and analyzed eight benthic metrics (structural, compositional and water quality indices) and a physical-chemical composite index with gradients of vegetation cover to assess the effects of deforestation on macroinvertebrate communities and water quality of 23 streams in southern Ecuadorian Andes. Using a geographical information system (GIS), we quantified vegetation cover at three spatial scales: the entire catchment, the riparian buffer of 30 m width extending the entire stream length, and the local scale defined for a stream reach of 100 m in length and similar buffer width. Macroinvertebrate and water quality metrics had the strongest relationships with vegetation cover at catchment and riparian scales, while vegetation cover did not show any association with the macroinvertebrate metrics at local scale. At catchment scale, the water quality metrics indicate that ecological condition of Andean streams is good when vegetation cover is over 70%. Further, macroinvertebrate community assemblages were more diverse and related in catchments largely covered by native vegetation (>70%). Our results suggest that retaining an important quantity of native vegetation cover within the catchments and a linkage between headwater and riparian forests help to maintain and improve stream biodiversity and water quality in Andean streams affected by deforestation. This research proposes that a strong regulation focused to the management of riparian buffers can be successful when decision making is addressed to conservation/restoration of Andean catchments.     

Views on Researcher-Community Engagement in Autism Research in the United Kingdom: A Mixed-Methods Study

There has been a substantial increase in research activity on autism during the past decade. Research into effective ways of responding to the immediate needs of autistic people is, however, less advanced, as are efforts at translating basic science research into service provision. Involving community members in research is one potential way of reducing this gap. This study therefore investigated the views of community involvement in autism research both from the perspectives of autism researchers and of community members, including autistic adults, family members and practitioners. Results from a large-scale questionnaire study (n = 1,516) showed that researchers perceive themselves to be engaged with the autism community but that community members, most notably autistic people and their families, did not share this view. Focus groups/interviews with 72 participants further identified the potential benefits and remaining challenges to involvement in research, especially regarding the distinct perspectives of different stakeholders. Researchers were skeptical about the possibilities of dramatically increasing community engagement, while community members themselves spoke about the challenges to fully understanding and influencing the research process. We suggest that the lack of a shared approach to community engagement in UK autism research represents a key roadblock to translational endeavors.     

塔克拉玛干沙漠南缘防护林和自然群落中多枝柽柳的光合特征及水分利用效率

干旱区植物的生长和生存主要受水分限制,采用滴灌方式对防护林植物进行水分补给是维持人工生态屏障稳定性的重要手段.本研究通过测定塔克拉玛干沙漠南缘防护林和自然群落多枝柽柳的气体交换参数和稳定性碳同位素值,研究不同水分来源多枝柽柳的光合特征和水分利用效率.结果表明: 滴灌群落多枝柽柳受灌溉和土壤盐分的影响水势普遍较低;自然群落多枝柽柳清晨和正午水势较其他植物低,表明其遭受到严重的水分胁迫;滴灌群落多枝柽柳叶片净光合速率(P_n)、气孔导度(g_s)、胞间CO₂浓度(C_i)和最大光合速率(P_{n max})均明显低于自然群落多枝柽柳,表明滴灌群落多枝柽柳光合能力弱于自然群落多枝柽柳;灌溉造成的盐分胁迫导致滴灌群落多枝柽柳比自然群落拥有较高的长期水分利用效率.总之,现行的灌溉模式虽能提供防护林植物生长所需水分,但技术的缺陷和土壤盐分的积累可能会影响防护林体系的长期稳定性.     

High genetic diversity on a sample of pre-Columbian bone remains from Guane territories in northwestern Colombia

Ancient DNA was recovered from 17 individuals found in a rock shelter in the district of "La Purnia" (Santander, Colombia). This region is the homeland of pre-Columbian Guane, whom spread over the "Río Suarez" to the "Río de Oro", and were surrounded to the west by the Central Andes, south and east by foothills of Eastern Andes, and north by the "Chicamocha" river canyon. Guanes established in a region that straddles the Andes and the northern Amazon basin, possibly making it an unavoidable conduit for people moving to and from South America. We amplified mtDNA hypervariable region I (HVI) segments from ancient bone remains, and the resulting sequences were compared with both ancient and modern mitochondrial haplogroups from American and non-American populations. Samples showed a distribution of 35% for haplogroup A, 41% for haplogroup B and 24% for haplogroup D. Nine haplotypes were found in 17 samples, indicating an unusually high genetic diversity on a single site ancient population. Among them, three haplotypes have not been previously found in America, two are shared in Asia, and one is a private haplotype. Despite geographical barriers that eventually isolated them, an important influence of gene flow from neighboring pre-Columbian communities, mainly Muiscas, could explain the high genetic polymorphism of this community before the Spanish conquest, and argues against Guanes as being a genetic isolate.     

植物水分利用率及其提高途径

植物水分利用率有不同范围,不同层次,不同水的概念,其最基本的是光合作用／蒸腾作用的比值,影响这两个过程的因素均能影响ＷＵＥ,提高途径主要有：作物种和品种的选择和改良、作物施肥、补充灌溉,应用化学物质等。     

Phylogenetics of Puya (Bromeliaceae): Placement, major lineages, and evolution of Chilean species

Puya (Bromeliaceae), a large genus of terrestrial bromeliads found throughout a range of elevations in the Andes and central Chile, is of great systematic, evolutionary, and biogeographical interest. This first molecular phylogenetic study of Puya and related bromeliads employs matK, trnS-trnG, rps16, and PHYC sequences. Chloroplast DNA, nuclear DNA, and combined DNA data all place Puya closest to subfamily Bromelioideae. Nuclear and combined data support Puya as monophyletic, and the two subgenera are nonmonophyletic. All data indicate that the Chilean species of Puya are early diverging within the genus, consistent with Chilean genera as the first-diverging members of subfamily Bromelioideae. Central Chile is identified as a key region for understanding the biogeographical history of Bromeliaceae, as is true with other South American plant groups. A complicated history involving early chloroplast capture and later secondary hybridization and/or introgression is seen in Chilean lineages. These events help explain the occurrence of sterile inflorescence tips, floral color and shape, and leaf indument. The ecological radiation of Puya appears coincident with the final, recent rise of the Andes and subsequent high-elevation habitat diversification. Additionally, geographical distribution, rather than moisture or elevational adaptations, correlates to species relationships. Evolution of CAM photosynthesis has occurred multiple times.     

First genetic assessment of the level of endemism in the avifauna of the Central Sierras in southern South America

The Andes constitute one of the main factors that have promoted diversification in the Neotropics. However, the role of other highland regions in the southern cone of South America has been barely studied. We analyzed the level of endemism in the avifauna of the Central Sierras in Córdoba, a high region in central Argentina, to evaluate the effect of its geographic isolation from the Andes. There are 11 species with endemic subspecies in this region, all of them described based only on differences in morphology (mainly plumage color) with no genetic evidence. We performed the first genetic analyses of seven of these species using mitochondrial DNA obtained from fresh tissue and toe pad samples. Our results show that for three of these species, Catamenia inornata, Phrygilus unicolor and Cinclodes atacamensis, the population in the Central Sierras is clearly differentiated from those of other regions, and the first two of them also show divergence among Andean subspecies. In the remaining species we found a varying degree of differentiation, ranging from a small divergence in Muscisaxicola rufivertex to the presence of different haplotypes but with an apparent lack of phylogeographic structure in Phrygilus plebejus and Sturnella loyca (being the latter the only species with a continuous distribution between the Central Sierras and the Andes) to haplotype sharing in Asthenes modesta. While further analyses including additional markers, morphological characters and vocalizations are needed, our results show that some of the species that have disjunct distributions, with a population in the Central Sierras isolated geographically from the Andes, possess distinct genetic lineages in the Central Sierras that suggest an evolutionary isolation from other populations. These findings highlight the importance of montane regions in general, and the Central Sierras in particular, as drivers of diversification in the Neotropics.     

喷灌对藏北高寒草地生产力和物种多样性的影响

通过3a(2008—2010年)的藏北高寒草地喷灌试验,研究了不同喷灌量对草地群落生产力和物种多样性的影响。结果表明,丰水年灌溉对藏北高寒草地的影响较小;而在相对干旱年份灌溉对高寒草地生产力和物种多样性影响显著。喷灌条件下高寒草地生物量显著提高,最高增幅出现在高水(GS)样地中,达到116%。喷灌明显促进物种重要值提高,其中灌木和阔叶杂草比例增加趋势更为明显。不同喷灌条件下优势物种相对重要值均有不同程度的降低,高水处理降低幅度最大。物种多样性方面,喷灌措施能够明显促进高寒草地Simpson指数和Shannon-weiner指数增加(P0.05),E.Pielou均匀度指数无显著变化(P0.05)。Shannon-weiner指数与生物量之间存在显著正相关关系(P0.05)。未来降水增多的气候条件可以减少干旱对高寒草地带来的负面影响,有利于提高草地生产力和维持草地物种多样性,促进高寒草地畜牧业健康发展。