Foraging,Food Choice,and Food Processing by Sympatric Ripe-Fruit Specialists: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles belzebuth belzebuth</Emphasis>

Studies of interspecific competition and niche separation have formed some of the seminal works of ecology. I conducted an 18-mo study comparing the feeding ecologies of 2 sympatric, closely-related ripe-fruit specialists, Humboldt's woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii), and the white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) in Amazonian Ecuador. Woolly monkeys in the terra firme forest live at roughly triple the density of spider monkeys (31 versus 11.5 animals/km²). Woolly monkeys spend 17% of their time foraging, while spider monkeys spend only 1% of their time foraging. Spider monkeys alone fed on soil and termitaria, which are rich in phosphorus. Woolly monkeys are not hard-fruit specialists. Their fruit diet is significantly more diverse than that of spider monkeys. Dietary overlap between the 2 species is high, yet each specializes to some degree on a different set of fruit resources. Woolly monkeys visit more food sources per unit of time, feed lower in the canopy, visit more small food patches, and prey on more seeds. Spider monkeys feed on fewer, richer food sources and are more than twice as likely to return to a particular fruit source than woolly monkeys are. Spider monkeys maximize fruit pulp intake, carrying more intact seeds in their guts, while woolly monkeys minimize seed bulk swallowed through more careful food processing. Surprisingly, several preferred spider monkey foods with high fat content and large seeds are avoided by woolly monkeys. I outline the different ecological dimensions involved in niche separation between the 2 species and discuss the possible impetus for their evolutionary divergence.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caenorhabditis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">briggsae</Emphasis> genome contains active <Emphasis Type="Italic">CbmaT1</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tcb1</Emphasis> transposons

The maT clade of transposons is a group of transposable elements intermediate in sequence and predicted protein structure to mariner and Tc transposons, with a distribution thus far limited to a few invertebrate species. We present evidence, based on searches of publicly available databases, that the nematode Caenorhabditis briggsae has several maT-like transposons, which we have designated as CbmaT elements, dispersed throughout its genome. We also describe two additional transposon sequences that probably share their evolutionary history with the CbmaT transposons. One resembles a fold back variant of a CbmaT element, with long (380-bp) inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that show a high degree (71%) of identity to CbmaT1. The other, which shares only the 26-bp ITR sequences with one of the CbmaT variants, is present in eight nearly identical copies, but does not have a transposase gene and may therefore be cross mobilised by a CbmaT transposase. Using PCR-based mobility assays, we show that CbmaT1 transposons are capable of excising from the C. briggsae genome. CbmaT1 excised approximately 500 times less frequently than Tcb1 in the reference strain AF16, but both CbmaT1 and Tcb1 excised at extremely high frequencies in the HK105 strain. The HK105 strain also exhibited a high frequency of spontaneous induction of unc-22 mutants, suggesting that it may be a mutator strain of C. briggsae.     

Terrestrial Behavior of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles</Emphasis> spp

Spider monkeys (Ateles spp.) are well known for their highly arboreal lifestyle, spending much of their time in the highest levels of the canopy and rarely venturing to the ground. To investigate terrestriality by Ateles and to illuminate the conditions under which spider monkeys venture to the ground, we analyzed ad libitum data from 5 study sites, covering 2 species and 5 subspecies. Three of the sites are in Central/North America: Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama (Ateles geoffroyi panamensis), Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica (A. g. frontatus), and Punta Laguna, Mexico (A. g. yucatanensis). The 2 remaining sites are in South America: Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Perú (A. belzebuth chamek) and Yasuni National Park, Ecuador (A. b. belzebuth). Terrestrialism by Ateles at all sites is rare; however, it is more restricted at the 2 South American sites. In South America, ground use only occurred in the contexts of eating soil or rotten wood and visiting salt licks. In contrast at the 3 sites with Ateles geoffroyi it rarely occurred in a feeding context, but instead more frequently while drinking from streams during the dry season, by adult females escaping attack by adult males, and as part of a chase game. In addition, on BCI adult males were on the ground before attacking adult females. We discuss potential explanations, e.g., climate, species differences, predation pressure, for the differences between the Central/North and South American observations.     

Floral development and systematic position of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arillastrum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allosyncarpia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stockwellia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptopsis</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

We have investigated the floral ontogeny of Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis (of the eucalypt group, Myrtaceae) using scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Several critical characters for establishing relationships between these genera and to the eucalypts have been determined. The absence of compound petaline primordia in Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis excludes these taxa from the eucalypt clade. Post-anthesis circumscissile abscission of the hypanthium above the ovary in Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia is evidence that these three taxa form a monophyletic group; undifferentiated perianth parts and elongated fusiform buds are characters that unite Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis as sister taxa. No floral characters clearly associate Arillastrum with either the eucalypt clade or the clade of Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia.We gratefully acknowledge Clyde Dunlop and Bob Harwood (Northern Territory Herbarium) for collecting specimens of Allosyncarpia, and Bruce Gray (Atherton) for collecting specimens of Stockwellia. The Australian National Herbarium (CANB) kindly lent herbarium specimens of Eucalyptopsis for examination. This research was supported by a University of Melbourne Research Development Grant to Andrew Drinnan.     

Phylogenetic analyses of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Uromyces viciae-fabae</Emphasis> and its varieties on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vicia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lathyrus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pisum</Emphasis> in Japan

A pea rust fungus, Uromyces viciae-fabae, has been classified into two varieties, var. viciae-fabae and var. orobi, based on differences in urediniospore wall thickness and putative host specificity in Japan. In principal component analyses, morphological features of urediniospores and teliospores of 94 rust specimens from Vicia, Lathyrus, and Pisum did not show definite host-specific morphological groups. In molecular analyses, 23 Uromyces specimens from Vicia, Lathyrus, and Pisum formed a single genetic clade based on D1/D2 and ITS regions. Four isolates of U. viciae-fabae from V. cracca and V. unijuga could infect and sporulate on P. sativum. These results suggest that U. viciae-fabae populations on different host plants are not biologically differentiated into groups that can be recognized as varieties.Contribution no. 184, Laboratory of Plant Parasitic Mycology, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Tsukuba, Japan     

Screening of <Emphasis Type="Italic">cry2</Emphasis> genes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus thuringiensis</Emphasis> isolates from Argentina

A polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method for identification of cry2 genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) was established. Strains from different sources of Argentina were analyzed to study the distribution of cry2 genes. The results showed that cry2Aa/cry2Ab profile was the most abundant irrespective of source and represented 56 of 59 Bt isolates (94.9%). Three different cry2 profiles were found in this collection, one of which was novel.     

Social parasitism of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes dominulus</Emphasis> by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes nimphus</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera,Vespidae)

Summary Interspecific facultative social parasitism is well known in ants and in bumble-bees, but it is rarer in wasps. This form of parasitism is traditionally considered to be an intermediate stage in the evolution of obligate interspecific parasitism, where the parasites are no longer able to nest alone. We report field and experimental observations of a newly discovered facultative parasitic relationship between two closely related free-living Polistes species: P. nimphus and P. dominulus. P. nimphus foundresses sometimes usurp the nests of the larger P. dominulus before worker emergence. The invading queen takes over the nest with abundant abdomen stroking on the nest surface and is accepted by workers if they emerge 6 or more days after usurpation. Morphometric comparisons show that the usurper species, though smaller than its victims, has morphological adaptations consisting of larger heads, mandibles and front femora relative to their body size that may give it an advantage during nest invasion. This strategy is likely to be taken only after the foundress loses her original nest because invading P. nimphus queens have lower reproductive success than they would have had on their own nest. Overall, we found that P. nimphus usurpers use strategies of invasion similar to those of two obligate parasites, suggesting that this may be an example of one of the pathways by which social parasitism evolved.Received 4 April 2003; revised 8 August 2003; accepted 14 September 2003.     

Close-Range Host Searching Behavior of the Stemborer Parasitoids <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cotesia sesamiae</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dentichasmias busseolae</Emphasis>: Influence of a Non-Host Plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Melinis minutiflora</Emphasis>

Studies were conducted on the host searching behavior of the larval parasitoid Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the pupal parasitoid Dentichasmias busseolae Heinrich (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), both of which attack lepidopteran (Crambidae, Noctuidae) cereal stemborers. The behavior of D. busseolae was observed in a diversified habitat that consisted of stemborer host plants (maize, Zea mays L. and sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L). Moench (Poaceae)) and a non-host plant (molasses grass, Melinis minutiflora Beauv. (Poaceae)), while C. sesamiae was observed separately on host plants and molasses grass. In previous olfactometer studies, C. sesamiae was attracted to molasses grass volatiles while hboxD. busseolae was repelled. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of molasses grass on close-range foraging behavior of the parasitoids in an arena that included infested and uninfested host plants. Dentichasmias busseolae strongly discriminated between host and non-host plants, with female wasps spending most of the time on infested host plants and least time on molasses grass. Likewise, C. sesamiae spent more time on uninfested and infested host plants than it did on molasses grass in single choice bioassays. While on infested plants, the wasps spent more time foraging on the stem, the site of damage, than on other areas of the plant. Overall, the results indicate that presence of the non-host plant does not hinder close range foraging activities of either parasitoid.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gibberella fujikuroi</Emphasis> complex and fumonisin contamination of pearl millet and corn in Georgia,USA

This study was designed to identify and compare the Fusarium species of the Gibberella fujikuroi complex on pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br) and corn (Zea mays L.) crops grown in southern Georgia, and to determine their influence on potential fumonisin production. Pearl millet and corn samples were collected in Georgia in 1996, 1997 and 1998. Three percent of the pearl millet seeds had fungi similar to the Fusarium species of the G. fujikuroi species complex. One hundred and nineteen representative isolates visually similar to the G. fujikuroi species complex from pearl millet were paired with mating population A (Fusarium verticillioides (Sacc.) Nirenberg), mating population D (F. proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg) and mating population F (F. thapsinum (Klittich, Leslie, Nelson and Marasas) tester strains. Successful crosses were obtained with 50.4%, 10.1% and 0.0% of these isolates with the A, D and F tester strains, while 39.5 of the isolates did not form perithecia with any tester strains. Two of the typical infertile isolates were characterized by DNA sequence comparisons and were identified as Fusarium pseudonygamai (Nirenberg and ODonnell), which is the first known isolation of this species in the United States. Based on the pattern of cross-compatibility, conidiogenesis, colony characteristics and media pigmentation, a majority of the infertile isolates belong to this species. Fumonisins FB₁ and FB₂ were not detected in any of the 81 pearl millet samples analyzed. The species of the G. fujikuroi species complex were dominant in corn and were isolated from 84%, 74% and 65% of the seed in 1996, 1997 and 1998, respectively. Representative species of the G. fujikuroi species complex were isolated from 1996 to 1998 Georgia corn survey (162, 104 and 111 isolates, respectively) and tested for mating compatibility. The incidence of isolates belonging to mating population A (F. verticillioides) ranged from 70.2% to 89.5%. Corn survey samples were assayed for fumonisins, and 63% to 91% of the 1996, 1997 and 1998 samples were contaminated. The total amount of fumonisins in the corn samples ranged from 0.6 to 33.3 g/g.     

Morphological Variation in Populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eulemur albocollaris</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. fulvus rufus</Emphasis>

Sexual dimorphism in body size and canine weaponry is commonly associated with high levels of male-male competition. When group living species do not rely heavily on male-male competition for access to females, sperm competition may represent a viable alternative strategy. Unlike most haplorhine primates, lemurs are typically monomorphic in body weight and canine height. We assessed variability of body mass dimorphism and canine size dimorphism in brown lemurs using morphometric data from 3 populations in southeastern Madagascar: Eulemur fulvus rufus, E. albocollaris, and hybrids of the species. We found significant male-biased canine dimorphism in E. albocollaris in conjunction with body-size monomorphism. We observed similar patterns in the hybrids, but E. fulvus rufus exhibited significant female-biased size dimorphism and canine monomorphism. Testes volume was relatively high across study populations. Thus, sperm competition appears to be strong in brown lemurs. E. albocollaris males combine sperm competition with large canines, but not higher body mass, indicating a difference in sexual strategy from most lemurs. Patterns of body mass and canine size dimorphism are not uniform across brown lemur populations, indicating that future work on these populations can explicitly test models that predict relationships between size dimorphism and various types of competition.     

Distribution of similar self-incompatibility (<Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>) haplotypes in different genera,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Raphanus</Emphasis> and<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Brassica</Emphasis>

The nucleotide sequences of ten SP11 and nine SRK alleles in Raphanus sativus were determined, and deduced amino acid sequences were compared with those of Brassica SP11 and SRK. The amino acid sequence identity of class-I SP11s in R. sativus was about 30% on average, the highest being 52.2%, while that of the S domain of class-I SRK was 77.0% on average and ranged from 70.8% to 83.9%. These values were comparable to those of SP11 and SRK in Brassica oleracea and B. rapa. SP11 of R. sativus S-21 was found to be highly similar to SP11 of B. rapa S-9 (89.5% amino acid identity), and SRK of R. sativus S-21 was similar to SRK of B. rapa S-9 (91.0%). SP11 and SRK of R. sativus S-19 were also similar to SP11 and SRK of B. oleracea S-20, respectively. These similarities of both SP11 and SRK alleles between R. sativus and Brassica suggest that these S haplotype pairs originated from the same ancestral S haplotypes.     

The ontogenetic basis for floral diversity in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agonis</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leptospermum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Kunzea</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

Floral development in three species each of Leptospermum and Kunzea, and one species of Agonis, is described and compared. Differences in the number of stamens and their arrangement in the flower at anthesis are determined by the growth dynamics of the bud. In Leptospermum, early expansion of the bud is predominantly in the axial direction and causes the stamen primordia to be initiated in antepetalous chevrons. In Kunzea, early expansion occurs predominantly in the lateral direction and successive iterations of stamen primordia are inserted alternately at more or less the same level. In both genera, further expansion in the lateral plane spreads the stamens into a ring around the hypanthium. Agonis flexuosa is similar to Leptospermum. Other variable factors include the timing at which stamen initiation commences (earlier in Leptospermum than Kunzea), the duration of stamen initiation (hence the total number of stamens produced – varies within genera), and very late differential expansion that forces stamens into secondary antesepalous groups in A. flexuosa and L. myrsinoides.The authors thank Dr H. Toelken for kindly providing some material and the impetus for this project. This research was supported by Australian Research Council grant AS19131815.     

Parasitism <Emphasis Type="Italic">versus</Emphasis> mutualism in the ant-garden parabiosis between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Camponotus femoratus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crematogaster levior</Emphasis>

Ant-gardens represent a special type of association between ants and epiphytes. Frequently, two ant species can share the same nest in a phenomenon known as ‘parabiosis’, but the exact nature (i.e., mutualistic or parasitic) of this interaction is the subject of debate. We thus attempted to clarify the mutual costs and benefits for each partner (ants and plants) in the Crematogaster levior/Camponotus femoratus ant-garden parabiosis. The ants’ response to experimental foliar damage to the epiphytes and to the host tree as well as their behavior and interactions during prey capture were investigated to see if the purported parasitic status of Cr. levior could be demonstrated in either the ant-ant or in the ant-plant interactions. The results show that both species take part in protecting the epiphytes, refuting the role of Cr. levior as a parasite of the ant-garden mutualism. During capture of large prey Ca. femoratus took advantage from the ability of Cr. levior to discover prey; by following Cr. levior trails Ca. femoratus workers discover the prey in turn and usurp them during agonistic interactions. Nevertheless, the trade-off between the costs and benefits of this association seems then to be favorable to both species because it is known that Cr. levior benefits from Ca. femoratus building the common carton nests and furnishing protection from vertebrates. Consequently, parabiosis can then be defined as the only mutualistic association existing between ant species, at least in ant-gardens. Received 31 August 2006 ; revised 8 December 2006 ; accepted 12 December 2006     

Cloning and expression of <Emphasis Type="Italic">mel</Emphasis> gene from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus thuringiensis</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis>

Previous work from our laboratory has shown that most of Bacillus thuringiensis strains possess the ability to produce melanin in the presence of l-tyrosine at elevated temperatures (42 °C). Furthermore, it was shown that the melanin produced by B. thuringiensis was synthesized by the action of tyrosinase, which catalyzed the conversion of l-tyrosine, via l-DOPA, to melanin. In this study, the tyrosinase-encoding gene (mel) from B. thuringiensis 4D11 was cloned using PCR techniques and expressed in Escherichia coli DH5 . A DNA fragment with 1179 bp which contained the intact mel gene in the recombinant plasmid pGEM1179 imparted the ability to synthesize melanin to the E. coli recipient strain. The nucleotide sequence of this DNA fragment revealed an open reading frame of 744 bp, encoding a protein of 248 amino acids. The novel mel gene from B.thuringiensis expressed in E. coli DH5 conferred UV protection on the recipient strain.     

Social encapsulation of the small hive beetle (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aethina tumida</Emphasis> Murray) by European honeybees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis mellifera</Emphasis> L.)

Summary European and African subspecies of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) utilize social encapsulation to contain the small hive beetle (Aethina tumida Murray), a honeybee colony scavenger. Using social encapsulation, African honeybees successfully limit beetle reproduction that can devastate host colonies. In sharp contrast, European honeybees often fail to contain beetles, possibly because their social encapsulation skills may be less developed than those of African honeybees. In this study, we quantify beetle and European honeybee behaviours associated with social encapsulation, describe colony and time (morning and evening) differences in these behaviours (to identify possible circadian rhythms), and detail intra-colonial, encapsulated beetle distributions. The data help explain the susceptibility of European honeybees to depredation by small hive beetles. There were significant colony differences in a number of social encapsulation behaviours (the number of beetle prisons and beetles per prison, and the proportion of prison guard bees biting at encapsulated beetles) suggesting that successful encapsulation of beetles by European bees varies between colonies. We also found evidence for the existence of circadian rhythms in small hive beetles, as they were more active in the evening rather than morning. In response to increased beetle activity during the evening, there was an increase in the number of prison guard bees during evening. Additionally, the bees successfully kept most (~93%) beetles out of the combs at all times, suggesting that social encapsulation by European honeybees is sufficient to control small populations of beetles (as seen in this study) but may ultimately fail if beetle populations are high.Received 20 January 2003; revised 21 April 2003; accepted 29 April 2003.     

Molecular Detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptococcus pyogenes</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptococcus dysgalactiae</Emphasis> subsp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">equisimilis</Emphasis>

We developed molecular diagnostic assays for the detection of Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) and Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis (SDSE), two streptococcal pathogens known to cause both pharyngitis and more invasive forms of disease in humans. Two real-time PCR assays coupled with an internal control were designed to be performed in parallel. One assay utilizes a gene target specific to GAS, and the other utilizes a gene target common to the two species. Both assays showed 2–3 orders of magnitude improved analytical sensitivity when compared to a commercially available rapid antigen test. In addition, when compared to standard culture in an analysis of 96 throat swabs, the real-time PCR assays resulted in clinical sensitivity and specificity of 91.7 and 100%, respectively. As capital equipment costs for real-time PCR can be prohibitive in smaller laboratories, the real-time PCR assays were converted to a low-density microarray format designed to function with an inexpensive photopolymerization-based non-enzymatic signal amplification (NESA™) method. S. pyogenes was successfully detected on the low-density microarray in less than 4 h from sample extraction through detection.     

Molecular subtyping of clinical isolates of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida albicans</Emphasis> and identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida dubliniensis</Emphasis>in Malaysia

The genotypes of 221 recent isolates of Candida albicans from various clinical specimens of 213 patients admitted to the University Malaya Medical Centre, Malaysia was determined based on the amplification of a transposable intron region in the 25 S rRNA gene. The analyses of 178 C. albicansisolated from nonsterile clinical specimens showed that they could be classified into three genotypes: genotype A (138 isolates), genotype B (38 isolates) and genotype C (2 isolates). The genotyping of 43 clinical isolates from sterile specimens showed that they belonged to genotype A (29 isolates), genotype B (10 isolates), genotype C (2 isolates) and genotype D (2 isolates). The overall distribution of C. albicans genotypes in sterile and nonsterile specimens appeared similar, with genotype A being the most predominant type. This study reported the identification of C. dubliniensis (genotype D) in 2 HIV-negative patients with systemic candidiasis, which were missed by the routine mycological procedure. The study demonstrated the genetic diversity of clinical isolates of C. albicans in Malaysia.     

Thidiazuron Promotes <Emphasis Type="Italic">In Vitro</Emphasis> Plant Regeneration of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arachis correntina</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Leguminosae</Emphasis>) via Organogenesis

Arachis correntina (Burkart) Krapov. & W.C. Gregory is a herbaceous perennial leguminous plant growing in the Northeast of the Province Corrientes, Argentina. It is important as forage. The development of new A. correntina cultivars with improved traits could be facilitated through the application of biotechnological strategies. The purpose of this study was to investigate the plant regeneration potential of mature leaves of A. correntina in tissue culture. Buds were induced from both petiole and laminae on 0.7% agar-solidified medium containing 3% sucrose, salts and vitamins from Murashige and Skoog (MS) supplemented with 0.5–25 M thidiazuron (TDZ). Shoot induction was achieved by transference of calli with buds to MS supplemented with 5 M TDZ. Fifty-four percent of the regenerated shoot rooted on MS + 5 M naphthaleneacetic acid. Histological studies revealed that shoots regenerated via organogenesis.     

Inhibiting the Sexual Behavior of Female Cotton Bollworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helicoverpa armigera</Emphasis>

The biological function of a series of aliphatic acids was studied in order to explore a new approach to controlling cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. Calling behavior of the females was observed when they were exposed to one of fourteen aliphatic acids, and mating behavior was studied when females were exposed to one of these five aliphatic acids. Calling behavior and mating rate were reduced significantly when females were exposed to Z6-octadecenoic acid, Z9-octadecenoic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid or Z11-eicosenoic acid. These compounds could be used as female sexual inhibitors, and might be utilized for the control of cotton bollworm in field.