Breakdown of the potentiality principle and its impact on global stem cell research

Totipotency, defined as the ability of a single cell to generate an entire individual, has traditionally served as a cornerstone to frame the moral relevance of nascent human life. This "potentiality principle" has served as an ethical reference point for shaping legal regulations for stem cell research in most Western countries. Based on heterogeneous ethical, religious, and political views, different countries cope with recent advances in mammalian cloning and reprogramming in a remarkably diverse manner. This and related issues were key topics at a recent meeting held in Berlin, Germany, on ethical aspects of stem cell research in Europe. An emerging view from this event is that international heterogeneity in stem cell politics and legislation must be overcome in order to develop this field toward biomedical application.     

Risk aversion and religious behaviour: Analysis using a sample of Danish twins

Economics offers an analytical framework to consider human behaviour including religious behaviour. Within the realm of Expected Utility Theory, religious belief and activity could be interpreted as an insurance both for current life events and for afterlife rewards. Based on that framework, we would expect that risk averse individuals would demand a more generous protection plan which they may do by devoting more effort and resources into religious activities such as church attendance and prayer, which seems to be in accordance with previous empirical results. However, a general concern regards the problems of spurious correlations due to underlying omitted or unobservable characteristics shaping both religious activities and risk attitudes. This paper examines empirically the demand for religion by analysing the association between risk attitudes on the one hand, and church attandance and prayer frequency on the other controlling for unobservable variables using survey data of Danish same-sex twin pairs. We verify the correlation between risk preferences and religion found previously by carrying out cross-sectional analyses. We also show that the association between risk attitudes and religious behaviour is driven by the subgroup of individuals who believe in an afterlife. In addition, when re-analysing our results using panel data analyses which cancel out shared factors among twin pairs, we find that the correlation found between risk aversion and religious behaviour is no longer significant indicating that other factors might explain differences in religious behaviour. Caution is needed in the interpretation of our results as the insignificant association between risk aversion and religious behaviour in the panel data analyses potentially might be due to measurement error causing attenuation bias or lack of variation within twin pairs rather than the actual absence of an association.     

Why aren’t we all hutterites?

In this paper I explore the psychology of ritual performance and present a simple graphical model that clarifies several issues in William Irons’s theory of religion as a “hard-to-fake” sign of commitment. Irons posits that religious behaviors or rituals serve as costly signals of an individual’s commitment to a religious group. Increased commitment among members of a religious group may facilitate intra-group cooperation, which is argued to be the primary adaptive benefit of religion. Here I propose a proximate explanation for how individuals are able to pay the short-term costs of ritual performance to achieve the long-term fitness benefits offered by religious groups. The model addresses three significant problems raised by Irons’s theory. First, the model explains why potential free-riders do not join religious groups even when there are significant net benefits that members of religious groups can achieve. Second, the model clarifies how costly a ritual must be to achieve stability and prevent potential free-riders from joining the religious group. Third, the model suggests why religious groups may require adherents to perform private rituals that are not observed by others. Several hypotheses generated from the model are also discussed. Richard Sosis is an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of Connecticut. His research interests include the evolution of cooperation, utopian societies, and the behavioral ecology of religion. In collaboration with Bradley Ruffle (Ben Gurion University) he is currently investigating the impact of privatization and religiosity on intra-group trust within Israeli Kibbutzim.     

Wanted: entrepreneurial parasitologists

At the recent World Water '86 conference in London, the Director of Water Supply and Urban Development in the Operations Policy Department of the World Bank chastised the assembled engineers for behaving like religious fanatics, convinced that their work is good and righteous but not willing (or able) to demonstrate this. There must be an opening here for an entrepreneurial parasitologist.     

Self organization origin of life scenarios and information theory

The self organizationist scenarios for the origin of life are examined by means of information theory. It is found that self organization must yield only genetic message ensembles of information content much too low to constitute a genome. It is shown that the statistical structure reflected in “the instructions in the amino acids themselves” is an impediment to the generation of genetic information not a source of it. It is concluded that at present there are no scientifically valid origin of life scenarios. Consequently, belief in little green men in outer space is purely religious not scientific.     

Pour une histoire du désir

The striking feature of the history of sexual desire is the contrast between the omnipresence of sexual desire in human societies, regardless of the period considered, and the negative representation constantly and systematically given to this desire by philosophers and religious leaders. Sexual desire was automatically rejected by those who were disgusted by the animal side of man. The Stoics of the first century A.D., rapidly followed by theologians of the young Christian religion, were convinced that animals only act to satisfy their physical needs, but that moral man had to distinguish himself from the animals by refusing to act simply for pleasure. For Cicero and Seneca “seeking an act because of the pleasure it procures is an abuse”. They applied this principle to food as well as bodily care: unthinking animals live to eat, while moral humans eat to live; food and maintenance of the body ensure health but do not provide pleasure. Similarly, sexuality is only justified for reproductive purposes. However, as already observed by Saint Augustine, this is not the way in which human beings act, and this Church Father had to admit that he had never met a husband able to claim that he “only had sexual intercourse in the hope of fathering”. Other thinkers were more moderate and distinguished acceptable desire, kept under the control of reason and leading to positive action from degrading, irrational desire ending in passion (always considered to be unreasonable). Only the second form of desire must be avoided; the first leads to happiness and fulfilment and remains the force that usually drives human action. Christian thinkers of the Middle Ages, attentive to the real life of believers, finally accepted that the human characteristic of memory is one of the most beautiful gifts of God, allowing man to remember past pleasures and therefore to rightfully experience the desire to repeat these pleasures: coitus without a reproductive purpose therefore appears to be part of the divine plan. A theologian, in contrast with dominant religious opinion, even declared “if someone eats a pear or a beautiful fruit only for the pleasure, it is not a sin. The same applies when a man has intercourse with his wife only for the pleasure”. However, far from theoretical discussions, individuals declared their deep attachment to desire, during the Renaissance, at the court of the Sun King, in salons of the Enlightenment or even, in contrast with a widely held belief, in the new industrial world of the 19th century. Today, while religious authorities still generally have a Stoic view of pleasure and desire, modern thought has advanced in its understanding of the place of desire in human experience and recognizes it an essential driving role responsible for fulfilment and a powerful stimulus for all forms of creativity. The history of sexual desire therefore corresponds to the steps of enrichment of basic animal instinct by the human species and the individual and social forms of expression of this desire.     

Race: a fallacious concept

The current reappearance of the word race to define human biological differences is misleading. It creates social and political problems. In the present synthesis we try to point out the historical responsabilities on the origin of this fallacious concept, and to clarify the misleading overimposition of physical, cultural and religious differences among human populations.     

Teaching evolution (and all of biology) more effectively: Strategies for engagement, critical reasoning, and confronting misconceptions

The strength of the evidence supporting evolution has increased markedly since the discovery of DNA but, paradoxically, public resistance to accepting evolution seems to have become stronger. A key dilemma is that science faculty have often continued to teach evolution ineffectively, even as the evidence that traditional ways of teaching are inferior has become stronger and stronger. Three pedagogical strategies that together can make a large difference in students' understanding and acceptance of evolution are extensive use of interactive engagement, a focus on critical thinking in science (especially on comparisons and explicit criteria) and using both of these in helping the students actively compare their initial conceptions (and publicly popular misconceptions) with more fully scientific conceptions. The conclusion that students' misconceptions must be dealt with systematically can be difficult for faculty who are teaching evolution since much of the students' resistance is framed in religious terms and one might be reluctant to address religious ideas in class. Applications to teaching evolution are illustrated with examples that address criteria and critical thinking, standard geology versus flood geology, evolutionary developmental biology versus organs of extreme perfection, and the importance of using humans as a central example. It is also helpful to bridge the false dichotomy, seen by many students, between atheistic evolution versus religious creationism. These applications are developed in detail and are intended to be sufficient to allow others to use these approaches in their teaching. Students and other faculty were quite supportive of these approaches as implemented in my classes.     

Faith-based perspectives on the use of chimeric organisms for medical research

Efforts to advance our understanding of neurodegenerative diseases involve the creation chimeric organisms from human neural stem cells and primate embryos—known as prenatal chimeras. The existence of potential mentally complex beings with human and non-human neural apparatus raises fundamental questions as to the ethical permissibility of chimeric research and the moral status of the creatures it creates. Even as bioethicists find fewer reasons to be troubled by most types of chimeric organisms, social attitudes towards the non-human world are often influenced by religious beliefs. In this paper scholars representing eight major religious traditions provide a brief commentary on a hypothetical case concerning the development and use of prenatal human–animal chimeric primates in medical research. These commentaries reflect the plurality and complexity within and between religious discourses of our relationships with other species. Views on the moral status and permissibility of research on neural human animal chimeras vary. The authors provide an introduction to those who seek a better understanding of how faith-based perspectives might enter into biomedical ethics and public discourse towards forms of biomedical research that involves chimeric organisms.     

The ‘curse’ of Westermarck 1

This article consists of a critical application of recent theory of nationalism to the unusual case of Mauritius. It is a poly‐ethnic and poly‐religious society whose inhabitants neither share a mythical distant past nor consider themselves culturally identical, but where nation‐building has nevertheless been moderately successful since the late 1960s. Through an examination of the processes of institutional and cultural nation‐building in the island, it is argued that the current Eurocentric view of the nation (notably as a culturally homogeneous imagined community) must be modified to fit cases like this one. Thus, the value of nationalism and nationhood as comparative concepts is questioned.     

Religious and secular death: a parting of the ways

Most organized religions have indicated a level of support for organ donation including the diagnosis of death by the brain criterion. Organ donation is seen as a gift of love and fits within a communitarian ethos that most religions embrace. The acceptance of the determination of death by the brain criterion, where it has been explained, is reconciled with religious views of soul and body by using a notion of integration. Because the soul may be seen as that which integrates the human body, in the absence of any other signs of human functioning, loss of integration is considered to be an indication that soul and body have separated. To some extent this view would seem to be informed by an Aristotelian notion of the soul, but it fits well enough with religious notions of the person continuing after death. There have been several developments internationally that indicate that the acceptance of so-called 'brain death' by organized religions has been challenged by new developments including the acceptance of a lesser standard than loss of all brain function and a rejection by the US President's Council on Bioethics of the notion of loss of integration as an explanation of death by the brain criterion.     

Unexplained findings in anthropologic study material from Egypt. Addenda to Herodotus' "Historian", Lib. II, 86-88 and Egyptian "Sparagmos"?]

The authors report on recently excavated mummified human remains from Buto and Minshat Abu Omar in the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt). There is evidence that besides the conventional mummification techniques described for example by Herodotus rather invasive methods have been applied, i.e. maceration and dissection of the soft tissue, partly followed by modelling the skeleton with a thin layer of mud. This practise remembers of certain mutilated anthropological material of predynastic origin discovered towards the end of the last century by W.M. Flinders Petrie, which additionally seems to show significant parallels to ancient Egyptian mythological and religious texts (Pyramid texts, Coffin texts, Book of the Dead, etc.). Probably the presented findings, dated between 700 B.C. and 400 A.D., must be explained as a local rebirth of an archaic but non-specific Egyptian custom, preceding the inauguration of mummification in Egypt. The main task of this paper is to introduce important new material and to ask those missions also involved in archaeological fieldwork in Egypt for paying special attention to this subject.     

Accommodating religion and belief in healthcare: Political threats,agonistic democracy and established religion

This paper considers what concept of accommodation is necessary to identify and address discrimination, disadvantages and disparities in such a way that the plurality of religious people with their beliefs, values and practices may be justly accommodated in healthcare. It evaluates threats to the possibility of such accommodation pertaining by considering what beliefs and practices might increase the risk of unjust discrimination against and disadvantage for religious people, whether as individuals or as groups; and the risk of disparities between the care provided to religious people. The claim is that there is an important cluster of risks that are political in kind and emergent within philosophical bioethics. While not amounting (yet) to a trend, they are sufficiently threatening to a just civic life for patients and healthcare staff as to warrant scrutiny. After an Introductory Section 1, Section 2 evaluates a criticism of ‘accommodation’ and the apparently additional health-related requirements that those of religious faith demand, when compared with other people. It does so by comparing Lori Beaman's idea of agonism with that of a distinct and somewhat complementary approach in Jonathan Chaplin's political philosophy, before examining the role of established religion in setting the conditions for the accommodation of religion and belief in healthcare. Section 3 examines risks to such accommodation by engaging critically with three health-related instantiations of political philosophy that differ radically from both Beaman and Chaplin. A concluding Section 4 focusses on appropriate modes of communicating about religious and other beliefs in healthcare.     

The human embryo: a scientist's point of view

...Thus, my judgement is that a human embryo is not a human person, and so we may do experiments on it which involve killing it. But my judgement is also that a human embryo has the potential to become a human being. The consequence of this attribute is that it imposes limits on the kinds of experiments which may be performed on human embryos. It is this which sets the boundaries. Experiments which may harm the embryo while still allowing it subsequently to realise its potential, and become a person, should not be permitted. It is the potentiality of the human embryo which governs our behaviour towards it. Its potential makes it special, and radically different from any other human tissue. This potential which the early embryo has means that great respect must always be accorded it, and great thought and care must surround any dealings with it....     

Some Ingredients for Mental Health

When the body is ailing the mind is soon impaired. Good health practices contribute to longer and better life. A balanced life of work-rest-play is necessary to human health.Psychosocial stresses at any period of life may impair morale and productivity and increase the likelihood of physical or mental disease. Bereavement, separation, divorce, loss of friendship, retirement, loss of self-esteem and symbolic losses contribute significantly to mental and physical ill health. Social and psychological support systems are vital to mental health maintenance.Mature persons evolve principles, values, moral and ethical tenets, philosophic and religious ideals and special codes of conduct to give meaning to their lives. The basic needs of survival and procreation must be integrated with moral precepts relating to interindividual behavior so as to give a person a feeling of self-worth, which is an indispensable element in mental health.     

What has faith got to do with it? Religion and child survival in Ghana

Using pooled children data from the 1998 and 2003 Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys, this study examines religious differences in child survival in Ghana. Guided by the particularized theology and selectivity theses, a piecewise constant hazard model with gamma-shared frailty is used to explore if there are denominational differences in child mortality, and whether these could be explained through other characteristics. At the bivariate level, children whose mothers identified as Muslim and Traditional were found to have a significantly higher risk of death compared with their counterparts whose mothers identified as Christians. In the multivariate models, however, the religious differences disappeared after the mediating and confounding influence of socioeconomic factors were controlled. The findings provide support for the selectivity hypothesis, which is based on the notion that religious variations mainly reflect differential access to social and human capital rather than religious theology per se.     

The argument from potential: a reappraisal

Several criticisms of the argument from potential are reported. It is noted that such criticisms are inspired by two similarly wrong interpretations of potentiality, one confusing it with possibility and another with probability. A brief analysis of the original Aristotelian context in which the concept emerged shows that potentiality cannot be thought of as indicating the provision of some empirical facts in the future, but must rather be referred to the inherent ontological structure of the being in question. It is then argued that such an Aristotelian concept can be useful to express the dynamic structure of the person, as it must be understood according to contemporary phenomenological personalism. In the light of this philosophical tradition, the embryo can be vieewed as a being already possessing the human nature and actively developing its potential for personhood: it also follows that human nature must not be understood as a static and predetermined essence, but rather as the principle of becoming and movement toward further achievements.     

Spiritual Development in Childhood and Adolescence: Toward a Field of Inquiry

Sustained attention to spiritual development during childhood and adolescence in the social and developmental sciences has the potential to significantly enrich and strengthen the understanding of the core processes and dimensions of human development. This article seeks to set the stage for such an inquiry by exploring 6 themes for building a multifaceted agenda. It argues that spiritual development is (a) understudied; (b) a complex, multifaceted concept; (c) grounded in a human propensity; (d) overlaps with and includes many aspects of religious development; (e) a developmental process that is shaped by both individual capacities and ecological influences; and (f) a potentially powerful resource for positive human development.     

Low nonpaternity rate in an old Afrikaner family

Extrapair paternity is a crucial parameter for evolutionary explanations of reproductive behavior. Early studies and human testis size suggest that human males secure/suffer frequent extrapair paternity. If these high rates are indeed true, it brings into question studies that use genealogies to infer human life history and the history of diseases since the recorded genealogies do not reflect paths of genetic inheritance. We measure the rate of nonpaternity in an old Afrikaner family in South Africa by comparing Y-chromosome short tandem repeats to the genealogy of males. In this population, the nonpaternity rate was 0.73%. This low rate is observed in other studies that matched genealogies to genetic markers and more recent studies that also find estimates below 1%. It may be that imposed religious morals have led to reduced extrapair activities in some historic populations. We also found that the mutation rate is high for this family, but is unrelated to age at conception.     

Ritual,emotion, and sacred symbols

This paper considers religion in relation to four recurrent traits: belief systems incorporating supernatural agents and counterintuitive concepts, communal ritual, separation of the sacred and the profane, and adolescence as a preferred developmental period for religious transmission. These co-occurring traits are viewed as an adaptive complex that offers clues to the evolution of religion from its nonhuman ritual roots. We consider the critical element differentiating religious from non-human ritual to be the conditioned association of emotion and abstract symbols. We propose neurophysiological mechanisms underlying such associations and argue that the brain plasticity of human adolescence constitutes an “experience expectant” developmental period for ritual conditioning of sacred symbols. We suggest that such symbols evolved to solve an ecological problem by extending communication and coordination of social relations across time and space. Candace Alcorta is currently a doctoral student in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut. Her research interests include the behavioral ecology and evolution of religion, and the interrelationship between cultural and neurophysiological systems. She is currently conducting research on adolescent religious participation, stress, and health. Richard Sosis is an associate professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut and a senior lecturer in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His current research interests include the evolution of cooperation, utopian societies, and the behavioral ecology of religion. He has conducted fieldwork on Ifaluk Atoll in the Federated States of Micronesia and is currently pursuing various projects in Israel aimed at understanding the benefits and costs associated with religious behavior.