The Ban Don Mun artifacts: A chronological reappraisal of human occupations in the Lampang province of Northern Thailand

Despite recent stone tool evidence demonstrating a much older Early Pleistocene human presence in India, the timing and geography of human demographic expansions in continental Southeast Asia remains ambiguous. The recent discovery of a series of stone artifacts spread over a basalt level at Ban Don Mun in the Lampang province of northern Thailand presents an ideal opportunity for reevaluating lithic assemblages documented during the 1970s and 1980s in the same region. Both the position of these stone tools and new absolute dates indicate a Middle Pleistocene age and call into question the status of these artifacts as the oldest yet found in Southeast Asia. The uncertain geo-chronological context and technological analysis of the chopper industry from previous work in the Lampang area prompted us to undertake new surveys in continental Southeast Asia in order to help clarify the route and timing of Pleistocene human expansions in this part of the world.     

Between simplicity and complexity: The knapping flexibility on cobbles at the early Neolithic site of Zengpiyan Cave (12–7 ka), Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region,southern China

The cobble industry in southern Chinese provinces was for a long time called large and simple “chopper-chopping tool tradition,” which persisted from the Early Pleistocene to the Middle Holocene. This recognition is 50% true and 50% false because it does not reflect the entire archaeological reality. On the one hand, the so-called “chopper-chopping tool” category often characterizes or dominates the lithic assemblages; on the other hand, a “chopper” from site A could be different from another “chopper” in site B. This distinction is important since the typological names lost their validity when conducting comparative studies inter- and intra-sites. The cobble tool industry of the Zengpiyan cave site (Guilin City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China) is an excellent example of this terminological dilemma, which presents some extent of both simplicity and complexity, underestimated in its production strategies. We could also find substantial flexibility between the two ends (simplicity and complexity) during the selection and exploitation of the cobble/pebble blanks. Although chopper-chopping tools are predominant at the site, the variability of their morpho-structures and techno-functional organization indicate that they are not just simple chopper-chopping tools sensu stricto but have their specific characteristics which could not be found in their typological names. In this context, we need to re-evaluate the previously so-called “choppers” in south China with a techno-functional approach before comparing different lithic assemblages. Compared with other contemporary sites, the Zengpiyan technical system is not far from those found in South China and mainland Southeast Asia. For example, it has similarities with the Sonvian phenomenon in northern Vietnam and some other sites in southern China. While very different from the Hoabinhian technocomplex, the Zengpiyan assemblage raises questions about the kinship with other Late Pleistocene lithic facies. Further technological studies on a larger number of sites in these regions are still needed to understand better the prehistoric techno-cultural relationships between the industrial assemblages of southern China and those bordering the Far East.     

New evidence of old stone tools from the Mekong terraces,Cambodia

The study of prehistoric sites with lithic remains indicates that the occupation of continental Asia, notably India and China, seems to have taken place earlier than previously thought. However, this Early Pleistocene human dispersal out of Africa remains debatable for the Southeast of Asia, in spite of the discovery of original lithic assemblages on the Mekong terraces dated to the very beginning of the Middle Pleistocene in the centre of Cambodia, by Saurin and Carbonnel in the 1960–1970s. Although this fundamental lithic material has become a reference, it has not been subjected to renewed study of these artefacts over the past decades, and it is thus not possible, for the moment, to attribute it with certainty to a particular culture. In this paper, we present an analysis of the raw materials and a techno-typological study of a similar series of prehistoric tools gathered by one of us in order to bring to light new elements concerning the first Palaeolithic occupation of this region of the world.     

青藏高原隆起与东亚旧石器文化的发展

近年来对青藏高原隆起的时间与幅度以及对邻近地区及全球性气候的影响等问题的认识逐渐深入。在亚洲中部隆起的巨大高原山脉,不但改变了全球的气候系统,形成东亚季风气候区,也造成中亚及邻近地区的干旱与沙漠化,在东西方之间形成天然屏障,阻碍早期人类基因与文化的交流。东亚地区古人类文化的发展历程也清楚地记录了这种情况。本文拟通过对早更新世以来东亚与西方旧石器文化关系的比较,初步探讨青藏高原隆起对东亚及整个旧大陆地区远古人类及其文化发展的深刻影响。     

Was Homo erectus responsible for the hand-axe culture?

This paper reviews the evidence from Africa, Asia and Europe of the cultural associations of Middle Pleistocene hominids, as well as the hominid skeletal associations of hand-axe remains.The author points out that it is possible to make a good argument—from the evidence of Steinheim, Kanjera and Swanscombe—that the hand-axes at these sites were made by Homo sapiens. On the other hand, on the basis of Fontéchevade and Vértesszöllös, it could be claimed that Middle Pleistocene Homo sapiens was responsible for primitive flake and chopper cultures. The evidence from Java is negative while that from China is directly opposed to the view that Homo erectus made hand-axes. Only from Ternifine in Algeria and Olduvai in Tanzania is there suggestive evidence that Homo erectus in those areas might have been responsible for the hand-axe culture. Thus, it is not possible at present to make any categorical statements as to the makers of either the great hand-axe culture or the flake and chopper culture, during Middle Pleistocene times.     

丹江口库区梁家岗2号和东岗旧石器地点的调查与发掘

河南淅川梁家岗2号地点和东岗地点位于丹江下游左岸第三级阶地,海拔148~160 m。2009年对两地点进行了发掘,共计揭露面积1425 m²,出土和采集石制品193件。石制品种类可分为石核、石片、石器、断块和残片。原料均取自河滩砾石,岩性主要为脉石英,少量硅质岩。基本为锤击法剥片,个别采用砸击法剥片。石制品长和宽集中在20~80 mm。石器有刮削器、尖状器、砍砸器和手斧等。石器毛坯有近一半为石片,另有一定数量的断块和石核毛坯,个别为砾石毛坯。推测遗存年代在中更新世晚期至晚更新世。     

Discovery of a Mesolithic burial near the painted rock-shelter of Ban Tha Si (Lampang province,Northern Thailand): Implications for regional mortuary practices

Although the oldest Neolithic cultures in eastern Asia have for the most part been documented in China and Vietnam, a large number of Early Metal Age sites have been reported in northeastern Thailand. On the other hand, the Hoabinhian, principally identified by its characteristic unifacial tools, is known throughout the Late Pleistocene up until 3000 BP and is spread across the whole of continental Southeast Asia. The chronology of Hoabihnian lithic assemblages is still poorly documented and burials from the period are scarce and often do not provide enough information to allow the evolution of regional mortuary practices to be investigated. Here we describe a burial dated to 7047 ± 53 BP found associated with a Hoabinhian stone tool assemblage and fauna near the painted rock-shelter of Ban Tha Si. This discovery provides important new chrono-cultural information for continental Southeast Asia, especially with regard to changing regional mortuary practices.     

中国旧石器时代早、中期石器技术多样性研究的新进展

关于中国石器技术发展轨迹和特点,其中一种观点认为,在更新世大部分时间内,中国石器技术以第1模式为主。本文结合近年的考古发现和研究成果,对中更新世早期至距今约4万年的中国石器技术面貌进行了简要总结。这段时间内的中国石器技术呈现出明显的多样性和复杂性,尤其自晚更新世以来,多种石器技术体系并存,其中包括以手斧、手镐和薄刃斧等大型工具为特色的阿舍利技术体系、以盘状石核和各类小型工具为特征的小型石片石器技术体系、以勒瓦娄哇石核和尖状器为特点的莫斯特技术体系、以及以基纳型刮削器为主的莫斯特技术体系,后两者具有明显的旧石器时代中期技术特点。多种石器技术体系共存,这一现象反映了技术发展的区域性和该阶段人群构成的多样性,这为探讨古人类环境适应行为以及区域间人群扩散交流提供了重要信息。     

Les principales étapes de l’occupation humaine en bordure de l’Himalaya occidentale

Lithic industries attest that Western Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Pamir as well as the sub-Himalayan belt that is the Siwalik range, were inhabited during the prehistoric times. However, in thin transition zone between plains and high mountains, distinction is to be kept between low-middle altitude regions and high altitude regions (above 2000 m). In the former regions, the first human occupation tenuously appears around 2 Ma. In the Middle Pleistocene, the Lower Palaeolithic industries belong to two technological facies, the Acheulian and the Early Soanian. In the North-Western Siwaliks, the Soanian occurs in plenty on the river terraces, which were all built after 0.4 Ma, and the Acheulian appears between 0.5 and 0.7 Ma. The Middle Palaeolithic is still rich in cobble tools and therefore named Late Soanian. The Upper Palaeolithic is missing, perhaps due to climatic factors and the Neolithic is characterised by polished axes/adzes, but actually many of the cobble tools usually considered as Early Soanian may well belong to the cobble tool technical tradition common in South-East Asia during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. In the north of the mountain range, the entire Palaeolithic sequence yielded by the loess in Southern Tajikistan is characterised, right from the late Lower Pleistocene, by lithic industries mainly compose of flakes, sometimes with cobble tools. In the high altitude zones, prehistoric sites are unknown before the Holocene and therefore they are contemporaneous with the Neolithic but some technological facies display particular features. The question is to know whether the originality of the industries, observed at different periods of time, is linked to techno-cultural adaptations to particular environments or to the isolation of the mountain populations.     

The pebble tool or chopper/chopping tool industry in China

Several paleolithic sites (or localities) with cultural characteristics in common have been found in South China in recent years. They are paleolithic sites in Beise, Guangxi; in the upper reaches of the Han River, Shaanxi; Shuiyang River, Anhui; Li River and Yuan River, Human; Liao River, Jiangxi; etc.. The sites show some similarities in the stone tool industry which are as follows; large tools are more common than small ones; pebble tools are more common than flakes; and the chopper/chopping tools are more common than scrapers. This indicates that the paleolithic cultures in South China are part of the pebble tool — chopper/chopping tool tradition which is similar to that in Southeast Asia, but has many differences in certain aspects from the culture of North China. The area where the sites have been found covers large parts of Southeast China, including the Yangtze River valley (23°50′–33°5′ N, 104°38′–119° E).     

湖北郧县余嘴2号地点砍砸器的实验研究

2009年在湖北郧县余嘴2号旧石器地点的发掘过程中, 我们利用文化层中出土的砾石原料与从该地点附近地表采集的砾石原料进行复制与使用实验。各复制样本50件, 并根据原料类型、大小与刃角选取样本进行了使用实验, 最后与出土标本进行对比。实验结果表明, 燧石最适合用作砍砸器的原料, 砂岩最不适合; 遗址出土砍砸器原料却以相对丰富的角页岩、石英岩为主, 这表明古人选取原料的策略是以方便与适度为原则。实验还显示, 碰砧法制作砍砸器非常有效, 但是出土标本却表现为以锤击法为主, 导致这种差别的原因可能是古人的上肢有更强大的打击力和图方便的目的。另外,实验还表明, 砍砸器的使用有最佳的力轴与握姿以及最佳的边刃长度, 考古标本的观察也印证了这一点。在此基础上, 我们对砍砸器的性质、传统以及作为一种文化适应所代表的意义进行了探讨。     

陕西洋县绿豆梁旧石器遗址出土的石制品

洋县绿豆梁遗址位于汉水北部一级支流金水河左岸的第四级阶地上。为了配合国家重点工程项目——南水北调西线“引汉济渭”工程的建设,2014～2015年对该地点进行了发掘,揭露面积126 m2,出土和采集不同类型的石制品656件。研究显示,早期人类加工石制品的原料来自于河漫滩或阶地古老砾石层中的砾石,岩性包括石英、石英岩、硅质灰岩、石英砂岩、花岗岩等。硬锤打击法是最主要的剥片方式。石制品包含石锤、石核、石片、石器、断块和碎屑等类型。遗址石器组合中既包括刮削器、尖状器、石钻等尺寸较小的轻型石器,也包含重型刮削器、砍砸器等重型石器。通过与位于相同阶地部位、相距2 km的金水河口遗址的测年数据和地层堆积序列对比,绿豆梁遗址的年代属于中更新世时期或更早的时段。     

Stratégies techniques dans le Paléolithique Moyen du sud-est des Pyrénées

In this article, the lithic reduction systems from Middle Paleolithic levels at Roca dels Bous and Tragó are presented. These two sites are located in the South-eastern Pyrenees in Catalunya (Spain) and yield Mousterian levels which are attributed to MIS 3 and MIS 5. At the two studied sites, there is coexistence between expedient knapping systems and more complex techniques such as the Levallois method. Furthermore, cores are heavily exhausted, showing a pattern that cannot be explained by the absence or scarcity of raw material. This technical pattern can be traced across several Mousterian assemblages in the South-eastern Pyrenees, suggesting technocognitive continuity in the Middle Palaeolithic during the Upper Pleistocene, in which changes in lithic reduction patterns are not evident. In this paper, the implications of such observations are contextualized within the general discussion on the behaviour of the South-eastern Pyrenees Neanderthals.     

更新世中期中国古人类演化区域连续性与多样性的化石证据

以往,在东亚大陆发现的更新世中期人类化石被分别归入直立人和古老型智人。这种分类的主要依据是化石形态特征以及年代。魏敦瑞对周口店第一地点人类化石研究描述的一些头骨、下颌骨和牙齿特征通常被作为判定直立人的标准。根据这些化石的年代分布,一般将30万年前的中更新世晚期作为划分直立人与古老型智人的大致年代界限。近20年来,在非洲、欧洲和东亚新发现了一些更新世中期人类化石,目前古人类学界对中国更新世中期人类化石特征及演化有了与以往不同的认识。最近对大荔、许家窑、盘县大洞、许昌、华龙洞等人类化石的研究显示,近30万年以来东亚大陆人类演化呈现复杂的多样性,将这一时期人类全部归入古老型智人难以准确反映更新世中期中国古人类演化模式及规律。本文结合近年中国更新世中期人类演化研究进展,选择部分具有演化及分类价值的形态特征,分析这些特征在更新世中期中国古人类化石的表现特点。在此基础上,对更新世中期中国古人类演化模式做了尝试性探讨。本研究发现,周口店、和县、沂源、南京等中更新世早期人类化石呈现有较多的区域性特征,形态特征表现相对稳定;而大荔、金牛山、许家窑、许昌、华龙洞、马坝、盘县大洞等中更新世晚期人类在化石形态特征表现复杂多样,变异范围大。此外,在这一时期人类化石上发现较多与生存活动、健康、环境适应有关的证据。根据这些发现,作者认为中国中更新世早期组人类演化以形态连续性为主;进入中更新世晚期,中国古人类演化区域性特征减弱,演化模式以多样性为主。一系列新的化石发现和研究证据提示中更新世晚期东亚大陆可能生存有不同的古人类成员。根据目前掌握的化石形态和年代证据,大约30万年前是中国更新世中期演化变化关键时间节点。     

中国现代人起源与演化的考古学思考

越来越多古人类学和旧石器时代考古学的发现与研究成果极大地改变了我们对现代人类起源、演化和适应理论问题的看法。中国作为东亚一个幅员辽阔的地理区域,已经成为这项研究的热点地带。来自该地区新的人类化石和石器组合对基于非洲和欧亚大陆西部记录构建的“现代人出自非洲说”（Recent Out-of-Africa）提出了挑战。新的古人类学研究结果表明,早期现代人出现于约100 kaBP的中国南方,可能（至少部分）是由那里的土著居民演化而来。一些古老型智人表现出了与早期古人类镶嵌或过渡性的体质特征,并可能与尼安德特人和丹尼索瓦人杂交混合。同时一些遗址出土的打制石器表现出了早期现代人类技术和行为的复杂性。中国北方的小石片石器主工业和南方的砾石石器主工业贯穿于整个更新世,然而从约40 kaBP开始,石叶技术开始出现在中国北部,紧随其后的是这些地区骨制工具和个人装饰品的出现,这表明,更新世晚期西伯利亚和中亚地区与我国北部可能存在着紧密的文化关系,东北亚地区可能存在着由西北向东南的迁移路线。人类化石和考古学证据表明,中国现代人类起源和适应的过程与机制可能与欧亚大陆西部有所不同。本文对有关中国现代人类起源与演化的考古学研究所取得的新发现和进展进行了总体回顾,从考古学角度阐述了对相关重要学术问题的看法,并为未来的研究提出了方向性建议。