Risk Assessment of Rotavirus Infection in Surface Seawater from Bohai Bay,China

Dose-response data indicate that rotavirus (RV) may be one of the more infective agents among enteric viruses. The major limitation at present in the assessment of infection from rotavirus is lack of quantitative data on viral infectivity. In this work, an integrated cell culture and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (ICC-qPCR) method and a Beta-Poisson model for risk assessment were employed. A set of 28 surface seawater samples was collected from December 2010 to September 2011 in Bohai Bay, China, to enable a seasonal risk assessment of infective RV at recreational beaches. Thirty-two percent of the samples were positive for rotavirus, and the estimated concentration range of infectious human rotavirus was 1 to 279 PFU/L. We further confirmed that the contamination of seawater with rotavirus was higher in autumn and winter, which was in reasonable agreement with the trend observed in a prior epidemiological study. Our preliminary risk assessment indicated the daily risk of illness at almost all the contaminated sites exceeded an acceptable threshold of marine recreational water quality (19 illnesses per 1000 swimmers). The detection method and dose-response model in the current work appear useful for evaluating pathogenic risks of seawater to vacationers and can inform management actions.     

Microbial Load of Drinking Water Reservoir Tributaries during Extreme Rainfall and Runoff

Hygienic and microbiological examinations of watercourses are usually not carried out during heavy rainfall and runoff events. After rainfall or snowmelt, there are often massive increases in turbidity in flooding creeks in mountain ranges, which are frequently interpreted as an indication of microbial contamination. The aim of this study was to quantify the microbial loads of watercourses during such runoff events and to compare these loads with loads occurring during regular conditions. In a 14-month monitoring period we investigated the microbial loads of three tributaries of different drinking water reservoirs. A total of 99 water samples were taken under different runoff conditions and analyzed to determine physical, chemical, bacterial, and parasitic parameters. Thirty-two water samples were considered event samples during nine measuring series. The criteria for events, based on duration and intensity of precipitation, water depth gauge measurements, and dynamics, had been fixed before the investigation for each creek individually. Of the physical and chemical parameters examined, only the turbidity, pH, and nitrate values differed clearly from the values obtained for regular samples. Most of the bacteriological parameters investigated (colony, Escherichia coli, coliform, fecal streptococcal, and Clostridium perfringens counts) increased considerably during extreme runoff events. If relevant sources of parasitic contamination occurred in catchment areas, the concentrations of Giardia and Cryptosporidium rose significantly during events. The results show that substantial shares of the total microbial loads in watercourses and in drinking water reservoirs result from rainfall and extreme runoff events. Consequently, regular samples are considered inadequate for representing the microbial contamination of watercourse systems. The procedures for raw water surveillance in the context of multiple-barrier protection and risk assessment ought to include sampling during extreme runoff situations.     

Extreme weather events and plant–plant interactions: shifts between competition and facilitation among grassland species in the face of drought and heavy rainfall

Biotic interactions play an important role in ecosystem function and structure in the face of global climate change. We tested how plant–plant interactions, namely competition and facilitation among grassland species, respond to extreme drought and heavy rainfall events. We also examined how the functional composition (grasses, forbs, legumes) of grassland communities influenced the competition intensity for grass species when facing extreme events. We exposed experimental grassland communities of different functional compositions to either an extreme single drought event or to a prolonged heavy rainfall event. Relative neighbour effect, relative crowding and interaction strength were calculated for five widespread European grassland species to quantify competition. Single climatic extremes caused species specific shifts in plant–plant interactions from facilitation to competition or vice versa but the nature of the shifts varied depending on the community composition. Facilitation by neighbouring plants was observed for Arrhenatherum elatius when subjected to drought. Contrarily, the facilitative effect of neighbours on Lotus corniculatus was transformed into competition. Heavy rainfall increased the competitive effect of neighbours on Holcus lanatus and Lotus corniculatus in communities composed of three functional groups. Competitive pressure on Geranium pratense and Plantago lanceolata was not affected by extreme weather events. Neither heavy rainfall nor extreme drought altered the overall productivity of the grassland communities. The complementary responses in competition intensity experienced by grassland species under drought suggest biotic interactions as one stabilizing mechanism for overall community performance. Understanding competitive dynamics under fluctuating resources is important for assessing plant community shifts and degree of stability of ecosystem functions.     

极端干旱条件下燕麦垄沟覆盖系统水生态过程

围绕极端气候条件下沟垄沟覆盖系统水文过程和水生产力变化问题开展两年的大田试验研究。以裸燕麦坝莜3号品种为材料,于2010年和2011年在甘肃定西进行,以充分灌溉为对照组,设置平地无种植、垄沟无覆膜种植、垄沟覆膜种植、裸地4个处理(此4个处理均无灌溉),测定生育期降雨、气温、0—140 cm土壤剖面水分变化、作物生长和产量等指标。结果表明,2010年和2011年分别为阶段性极端干旱和全生育期极端干旱两个类型,均导致所有处理组中土壤剖面60—100 cm的"土壤干层"现象,垄沟覆膜处理对"土壤干层"现象具有显著的缓解效应。与对照组相比,垄沟覆膜处理显著促进了收获期土壤剖面贮水量的回升,其贮水量分别提高了41.2 mm(2010年)和22.4 mm(2011年),全生育期水分利用效率和水生产力分别提高了1.7、0.4 kg·hm-2·mm-1(2010年)和6.5、9.8 kg·hm-2·mm-1(2011年)。另外,垄沟覆膜处理组的地上生物量比对照组降低了30.5%(2010年)和67.42%(2011年),但收获指数较对照分别提高了33.4%(2010年)和55.6%(2011年)。研究表明,垄沟覆膜处理促进了降水向土壤水和作物水的转化效率,显著地缓解了作物水分供需矛盾,是应对极端气候变化的重要生态策略。     

Extreme drought alters growth and interactions with exotic grasses,but not survival,for a California annual forb

Climate change will not only alter mean conditions, but increase the frequency and intensity of extreme events such as severe droughts. Yet the consequences of extreme drought for plant demography are poorly understood. We compared phenology, demographic rates and effects of competition with exotic grasses for the California annual forb Phacelia distans between a year with slightly below average precipitation (2011–2012) and one in extreme drought (2012–2013). We also contrasted these demographic responses with changes in seedling emergence rates and cover in the annual plant community. Early Phacelia mortality actually fell in the extreme drought year, as low October rainfall shifted germination to cooler conditions in November. Survival from mid December to flowering did not change between years. In contrast to expectations, competition with early-emerging exotic annual grasses did not reduce Phacelia spring survival in 2012–2013. A shorter window for fall germination that reduced priority effects may explain this result. Yet the 2012–2013 growing season ended a month earlier than in 2011–2012, significantly reducing Phacelia size at flowering and inflorescence production. Community seedling emergence and cover changed only weakly between the 2 years. Our results demonstrate the importance of within season precipitation patterns in determining whether a climatically extreme year will lead to extreme ecological outcomes. This work also illustrates how annual plant drought responses depend critically on germination behavior and phenology. An important future question is whether seed banks can sustain native forb population persistence through an extended drought with multiple years of low or failed reproduction.     

Aquatic plant dynamics of Waituna Lagoon, New Zealand: trade-offs in managing opening events of a Ramsar site

Coastal lagoons are at risk internationally due to impacts associated with human-induced land use change. The resilience of aquatic macrophytes in these systems is threatened by altered hydrological regimes, elevated nutrient loading, and increased dominance of nuisance species. We describe the aquatic plant dynamics of the Waituna Lagoon Ramsar Site, a 1,350?ha lagoon frequently opened to the sea for flood mitigation which is characterised by fluctuating water levels and salinity. The shallow lagoon supports a macrophyte community dominated by Ruppia megacarpa and R. polycarpa. Repeated survey of 48 sites across the lagoon during late summer in 2009, 2010 and 2011 were applied to describe aquatic plant composition and abundance. This period coincided with three opening events (winter 2008; winter 2009; spring 2010) when the lagoon switched from a predominantly fresh-brackish system to being influenced by tidal exchange and lower water levels. The lagoon experienced a period of 43?days open to the sea in 2008?C2009, 67?days in 2009?C2010 and 181?days in 2010?C2011, during which macrophytes were subject to saline conditions in excess of 10?ppt. We observed a decline in the occurrence of Ruppia from 2009 (69?% sites) to 2011 (23?% sites). The shift in productivity was associated with the duration of the open phase and the period plants were subject to saline conditions >20?ppt and low water levels. The resilience of the system is also at risk from increased algal-dominance due to the intensification of agricultural land use occurring in the Waituna Lagoon catchment. While lagoon opening events cause extreme changes in water depth and salinity that can limit macrophyte growth, they also provide a mechanism to reduce the effects of eutrophication. Understanding these trade-offs is pivotal in management decisions regarding the likely impact of opening events on the ecological character of coastal lagoons.     

Effects of three tapering techniques on the performance, forces and psychometric measures of competitive swimmers

The 100-m and 400-m swim time, tethered swimming forces, mood states and self-ratings of well-being of 27 competitive swimmers were measured before and after 4 weeks of intense training and after 1 week and 2 weeks of tapering for major competition. The swimmers were divided into three groups. Each group completed one of three taper regimes similar to those currently performed by swimmers in preparation for competition: (a) reduced training frequency according to each athlete's daily ratings of well-being, (b) reduced training volume, and (c) reduced training volume and intensity. Significant improvements in the Profile of Mood States measures of tension, depression and anger (P < 0.05) were observed after 1 week of tapering, with significant improvements in total mood disturbance and fatigue (P < 0.05) and peak tethered swimming force (P < 0.01) after 2 weeks. Non-significant improvements in 100-m and 400-m swim time (P > 0.05) were observed and no significant differences were revealed among the three tapering techniques. These data highlighted the importance of providing sufficient recovery before competition, since 1 week of reduced training was not long enough to maximise the benefits of tapering. However, none of the three types of tapering currently used by competitive swimmers could be shown to be more beneficial than the others. Accepted: 9 February 1998     

Flood effects on trophic linkages of selected fish species in the littoral zone of the St Lucia estuarine system,South Africa

The St Lucia Estuary, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has experienced prolonged mouth closure since 2002. Until recently it was hypersaline, but heavy rainfall between October 2010 and January 2011 led to a large overall decrease in salinity. A stable isotope study was conducted in March 2011 on selected fish species from the nearshore environments at Charter's Creek and the estuary mouth region to determine the influence of flooding events on their diet. Oreochromis mossambicus, the dominant fish species at both sites, had a generalised diet and occupied the lowest trophic level both before and after flooding. Monodactylus argenteus, Leiognathus equula and Gerres acinaces from the mouth area displayed a largely zooplanktivorous diet and showed some changes in prey species between drought and post-flood conditions.     

Flood Impacts in Keppel Bay,Southern Great Barrier Reef in the Aftermath of Cyclonic Rainfall

In December 2010, the highest recorded Queensland rainfall associated with Tropical Cyclone ‘Tasha’ caused flooding of the Fitzroy River in Queensland, Australia. A massive flood plume inundated coral reefs lying 12 km offshore of the Central Queensland coast near Yeppoon and caused 40–100% mortality to coral fringing many of the islands of Keppel Bay down to a depth of ∼8 m. The severity of coral mortality was influenced by the level of exposure to low salinity seawater as a result of the reef''s distance from the flood plume and to a lesser extent, water depth and whether or not the reef faced the plume source. There was no evidence in this study of mortality resulting from pollutants derived from the nearby Fitzroy Catchment, at least in the short term, suggesting that during a major flood, the impact of low salinity on corals outweighs that of pollutants. Recovery of the reefs in Keppel Bay from the 2010/2011 Fitzroy River flood is likely to take 10–15 years based on historical recovery periods from a similar event in 1991; potentially impacting visitor numbers for tourism and recreational usage. In the meantime, activities like snorkeling, diving and coral viewing will be focused on the few shallow reefs that survived the flood, placing even further pressure on their recovery. Reef regeneration, restoration and rehabilitation are measures that may be needed to support tourism in the short term. However, predictions of a warming climate, lower rainfall and higher intensity summer rain events in the Central and Coastal regions of Australia over the next decade, combined with the current anthropogenic influences on water quality, are likely to slow regeneration with consequent impact on long-term reef resilience.     

Autochthonous Chikungunya Transmission and Extreme Climate Events in Southern France

BackgroundExtreme precipitation events are increasing as a result of ongoing global warming, but controversy surrounds the relationship between flooding and mosquito-borne diseases. A common view among the scientific community and public health officers is that heavy rainfalls have a flushing effect on breeding sites, which negatively affects vector populations, thereby diminishing disease transmission. During 2014 in Montpellier, France, there were at least 11 autochthonous cases of chikungunya caused by the invasive tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus in the vicinity of an imported case. We show that an extreme rainfall event increased and extended the abundance of the disease vector Ae. albopictus, hence the period of autochthonous transmission of chikungunya.Conclusions/SignificanceOur empirical data suggests that heavy rainfall events did increase the risk of arbovirus transmission in Southern France in 2014 by favouring a rapid rise in abundance of vector mosquitoes. Further studies should now confirm these results in different ecological contexts, so that the impact of global change and extreme climatic events on mosquito population dynamics and the risk of disease transmission can be adequately understood.     

Radio Telemetry of the Electrocardiogram,Fitness Tests,and Oxygen Uptake of Water-Polo Players

During competitive water polo, heart rate in six subjects was monitored by cupped plastic and silver electrodes glued to the skin. Minimum rates during the game averaged 156 beats/min.; maximum rates averaged 186 beats/min. Mean maximum rate with bicycle exercise was 188 beats/min. Maximum oxygen (VO₂ max.) with bicycle exercise of 14 water-polo players was 53.3 ml./kg. Physical working capacity (PWC 170) was 1310 kilopond metres per square metre (k.p.m./sq.m.). PWC 170 correlated well with VO₂ max. in this small group (r = 0.77).Oxygen uptake was measured at three speeds of swimming and four levels of work on a bicycle ergometer. VO₂ max. of swimming was 88% of that obtained on bicycle exercise. The slope of the oxygen uptake vs. pulse rate curves was less for the swimming than for cycling, so that for a given oxygen uptake below the maximal, pulse rate was less in the swimmers. At near-maximal swimming, respiratory quotient was 0.95 compared with 1.27 for cycling, suggesting that the swimmers were underbreathing.     

Flooding risk analysis: A case study of Muscat Governorate,Sultanate of Oman

Muscat Governorate in the Sultanate of Oman is located along the sea of Oman and urban development has therefore had to occur in the intervening flat coastal plains and valleys along the coastline. The physical location of Muscat Governorate exposes the city to heavy rain and cyclones as they hit the coastline from the Sea of Oman. This underlying exposure plays a major role in the risk processes that lead to the emphasis of particular climate change risks including storm surge and rain-related flooding as experienced during Gonu Cyclone in 2007 and Phet Cyclone in 2010. For assessing flooding risk analysis, this study combined flooding hazard maps with major land use cover to quantify and validate the risks of flash flooding to urban area and infrastructures. Analysis identified substantial areas within the governorate exposure to high, medium, and low risks from extreme rainfall events that could lead to direct damages to roads, buildings, and other properties. This reinforces the need to protect and strengthen current defenses against these events as well as greater preparedness in disaster response.     

Responses of the limpet, Cellana grata (Gould 1859), to hypo-osmotic stress during simulated tropical, monsoon rains

Although heat stress is often cited as the dominant physical stress on tropical shores, intertidal organisms in regions with monsoonal climates are also regularly exposed to prolonged periods of heavy rainfall. Such events are predicted to have adverse physiological effects on individuals and may result in mortality. In a series of laboratory experiments, the impact of simulated monsoonal rains was investigated on the patellid limpet, Cellana grata. Sub-lethal responses in terms of body water content, body fluid osmolality and heart rate were measured in two different size cohorts maintained on horizontal and vertical substrata. Limpets were unable to achieve any effective behavioural isolation, and exposure to either simulated rainfall or diluted seawater resulted in both large and small C. grata gaining water with subsequent dilution of mantle water and haemolymph osmolalities. With increased duration of rainfall, dilution of body fluids increased with little difference between individuals on horizontal and vertical surfaces. Body fluids generally showed proportional dilution during prolonged rain, but in some individuals there was evidence for regulation of the haemolymph relative to the mantle fluid. Overall, smaller limpets were more susceptible to prolonged rainfall than large animals in terms of swelling of soft tissues and detachment and also had higher heart rates than large limpets. Both cohorts reduced heart rates with prolonged rainfall, suggesting a degree of metabolic depression, especially on horizontal surfaces. In small limpets, no difference in heart rate was found with substratum orientation, whereas large limpets had elevated heart rates on vertical as compared to horizontal substrata, when exposed to either simulated rainfall or washed with dilute seawater. This may reflect the increased energetic costs required to maintain a relatively larger body on a vertical surface under stressful conditions. Monsoonal rainfall during emersion, and subsequent dilution of seawater, therefore, have sub-lethal physiological and possible lethal effects on intertidal limpets. This influence has been largely overlooked, but coupled with the possible synergistic effects of thermal stress, monsoon rains are likely to play an important role in community dynamics on tropical shores.     

High ecomorphological diversity among Early Cretaceous frogs from a large subtropical wetland of Iberia

Anurans are extremely diverse amphibians with a unique Bauplan, whose origin, early ecomorphological diversification, and adaptive significance remain elusive. Their early fossil record is improving at an accelerated pace worldwide, but its contribution to these issues is still wanting. Here we explore ecomorphological diversity among Early Cretaceous (Barremian) frogs that inhabited a large subtropical wetland from Iberia by inferring locomotor abilities with a phylogenetic flexible discriminant analysis on data from limb proportions, which strongly correlate with locomotion. The results show a remarkable diversity among these frogs when compared with the extant diversity from this region and from tropical and subtropical wetland assemblages worldwide, encompassing miniature to medium-size jumpers and dedicated swimmers with more extreme proportions than extant ‘archeobatrachians,’ but also more generalized jumping and/or swimming forms. This agrees with the inferred wetland paleoenvironment and the hypothesis regarding early frogs as small poor jumpers or swimmers that evolved their peculiar Bauplan in aquatic environments.     

The economic value of an improved malaria treatment programme in Zambia: results from a contingent valuation survey

Background

Pools of salt water and puddles created by giant waves from the sea due to the tsunami that occurred on 26^th December 2004 would facilitate increased breeding of brackish water malaria vector, Anopheles sundaicus. Land uplifts in North Andaman and subsidence in South Andaman have been reported and subsidence may lead to environmental disturbances and vector proliferation. This warrants a situation analysis and vector surveillance in the tsunami hit areas endemic for malaria transmitted by brackish water mosquito, An. sundaicus to predict the risk of outbreak.

Methods

An extensive survey was carried out in the tsunami-affected areas in Andaman district of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India to assess the extent of breeding of malaria vectors in the habitats created by seawater flooding. Types of habitats in relation to source of seawater inundation and frequency were identified. The salinity of the water samples and the mosquito species present in the larval samples collected from these habitats were recorded. The malaria situation in the area was also analysed.

Results

South Andaman, covering Port Blair and Ferrargunj sub districts, is still under the recurring phenomenon of seawater intrusion either directly from the sea or through a network of creeks. Both daily cycles of high tides and periodical spring tides continue to cause flooding. Low-lying paddy fields and fallow land, with a salinity ranging from 3,000 to 42,505 ppm, were found to support profuse breeding of An. sundaicus, the local malaria vector, and Anopheles subpictus, a vector implicated elsewhere. This area is endemic for both vivax and falciparum malaria. Malaria slide positivity rate has started increasing during post-tsunami period, which can be considered as an indication of risk of malaria outbreak.

Conclusion

Paddy fields and fallow land with freshwater, hitherto not considered as potential sites for An. sundaicus, are now major breeding sites due to saline water. Consequently, there is a risk of vector abundance with enhanced malaria transmission potential, due to the vastness of these tsunami-created breeding grounds and likelihood of them becoming permanent due to continued flooding in view of land subsidence. The close proximity of the houses and paucity of cattle may lead to a higher degree of man/vector contact causing a threat of malaria outbreak in this densely populated area. Measures to prevent the possible outbreak of malaria in this tsunami-affected area are discussed.     

永定河沿河沙地杨树人工林蒸腾耗水特征及其环境响应

杨树是我国北方最常见的人工造林树种之一。一直以来在干旱、半干旱地区,速生杨树用材林和生态防护林的耗水问题备受关注。研究不同生长发育阶段杨树人工林蒸腾耗水及其对各环境因子的响应对于实现杨树人工林可持续经营具有重要价值。采用树干液流法结合微气象观测系统和土壤水分观测,在2010—2011年对位于北京南郊大兴林场、林龄为13a的杨树人工林林分蒸腾耗水和环境因子进行了同步观测,以期能够探究该林分的蒸腾耗水及其对环境因子的响应。结果表明,树干液流密度(Js)日变化呈明显的单峰曲线,单株样木耗水量随着胸径的增加而增大。在半小时尺度上,单株树木Js与浄辐射(Rn)、饱和水气压差(VPD)存在时滞,这种时滞现象随土壤水分条件不同而变化。林分蒸腾耗水总量在2010和2011年生长季内分别为113.7 mm和174.8 mm,占同期降雨的30.2%和36.9%,与该杨树人工林前期研究相比,随着林龄的增长2010—2011年的蒸腾量呈减小趋势。日尺度上,该人工林蒸腾耗水与净辐射(Rn)、饱和水汽压差(VPD)和土壤体积含水率(SWC)显著相关,在不同土壤水分条件下Rn与林分蒸腾的相关关系发生变化,而VPD过高会对林分蒸腾产生抑制。林分月蒸腾和年总蒸腾主要取决于同期降雨量,因此,降雨年际差异较大时,蒸腾的年际变化也相应较大。     

极端降水条件下延河水沙特征对比分析及其影响因素

为探究延河流域在开展水土保持工程前后极端降水条件下水沙特征变化情况,采用统计学方法对比分析了延河流域1977年和2013年7月两次极端降水条件下的水沙特征变化情况。结果表明:1977年7月极端暴雨具有降雨强度大和降雨量峰值大、降雨强度空间分布极不均匀的特征;2013年7月极端暴雨具有降雨总量和时段降雨量大、暴雨频率高、降雨强度空间分布较均匀的特征。2013年7月洪水洪峰流量、洪水总径流量、洪峰含沙量等特征值较1977年7月显著减小,输沙量随径流量的减小而显著减小。1977年7月洪水表现为陡涨陡落,洪水历时较短;2013年7月洪水表现为缓涨缓落,洪水历时明显延长。与1977年相比,2013年泥沙颗粒明显细化。该研究表明1990年代以来水土保持高水平的规模化治理改变了流域产、汇流的下垫面条件,是导致1977年和2013年7月极端降水条件下的水沙特征表现迥异的主要原因。该研究为应对极端降水引发的洪灾和防治水土流失提供可靠的科学理论依据。     

Helical swimming can provide robust upwards transport for gravitactic single-cell algae; a mechanistic model

In still fluid, many phytoplankton swim in helical paths with an average upwards motion. A new mechanistic model for gravitactic algae subject to an intrinsic torque is developed here, based on Heterosigma akashiwo, which results in upwards helical trajectories in still fluid. The resultant upwards swimming speed is calculated as a function of the gravitactic and intrinsic torques. Helical swimmers have a reduced upwards speed in still fluid compared to cells which swim straight upwards. However a novel result is obtained when the effect of fluid shear is considered. For intermediate values of shear and intrinsic torque, a new stable equilibrium solution for swimming direction is obtained for helical swimmers. This results in positive upwards transport in vertical shear flow, in contrast to the stable equilibrium solution for straight swimmers which results in downwards transport in vertical shear flow. Furthermore, for strong intrinsic torque, when there is no longer a stable orientation equilibrium, we show that the average downwards transport of helical swimmers in vertical shear flow is greatly suppressed compared to straight swimmers. We hypothesise that helical swimming provides robustness for upwards transport in the presence of fluid shearing motions.     

Evidence of use of vibrissae in swimming in Sigmo don fulviventer

Yellow-bellied cotton rats (Sigmodon fulviventer) from riparian habitats of a southwest New Mexican canyon have mystacial vibrissae that move well forward of the animals' noses when the rats are placed in the water. These rats are excellent swimmers and centrifugal stress alone has little or no effect on their aquatic behaviour. However, devibrissation (right, left, both sides) affected the swimming of 13 of 18 rats, resulting in body tilting and/or nose-dipping while in the water. With centrifugal stress and devibrissation, all 18 rats showed either or both effects. It is suggested that vibrissae play a role in the successful swimming of these rats, perhaps in maintaining body position as well as in keeping the head above the water.     

Slow life history and rapid extreme flood: demographic mechanisms and their consequences on population viability in a threatened amphibian

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