Phylogenetic patterns differ for native and exotic plant communities across a richness gradient in Northern California

Aim Increasingly, ecologists are using evolutionary relationships to infer the mechanisms of community assembly. However, modern communities are being invaded by non‐indigenous species. Since natives have been associated with one another through evolutionary time, the forces promoting character and niche divergence should be high. On the other hand, exotics have evolved elsewhere, meaning that conserved traits may be more important in their new ranges. Thus, co‐occurrence over sufficient time‐scales for reciprocal evolution may alter how phylogenetic relationships influence assembly. Here, we examined the phylogenetic structure of native and exotic plant communities across a large‐scale gradient in species richness and asked whether local assemblages are composed of more or less closely related natives and exotics and whether phylogenetic turnover among plots and among sites across this gradient is driven by turnover in close or distant relatives differentially for natives and exotics. Location Central and northern California, USA. Methods We used data from 30 to 50 replicate plots at four sites and constructed a maximum likelihood molecular phylogeny using the genes: matK, rbcl, ITS1 and 5.8s. We compared community‐level measures of native and exotic phylogenetic diversity and among‐plot phylobetadiversity. Results There were few exotic clades, but they tended to be widespread. Exotic species were phylogenetically clustered within communities and showed low phylogenetic turnover among communities. In contrast, the more species‐rich native communities showed higher phylogenetic dispersion and turnover among sites. Main conclusions The assembly of native and exotic subcommunities appears to reflect the evolutionary histories of these species and suggests that shared traits drive exotic patterns while evolutionary differentiation drives native assembly. Current invasions appear to be causing phylogenetic homogenization at regional scales.     

不同水盐梯度下功能多样性和功能冗余对荒漠植物群落稳定性的影响

功能多样性和功能冗余是物种多样性的两个组成部分,也是影响群落稳定性的两个重要因素。基于不同水盐梯度下植物功能多样性、功能冗余、物种多样性和群落稳定性及其相关关系的计算结果,分析功能多样性和功能冗余对群落稳定性的影响,结果表明:(1)功能多样性、物种多样性和群落稳定性均表现为高水高盐和中水中盐群落显著高于低水低盐群落(P0.05);(2)高水高盐群落,功能多样性与物种多样性的相关系数小于功能冗余与物种多样性的相关系数,且功能多样性与稳定性的相关系数也小于功能冗余与稳定性的相关系数,而中水中盐和低水低盐群落的相关系数则呈现相反的规律;(3)中水中盐和低水低盐群落的功能多样性的标准化偏回归系数均大于功能冗余的标准化偏回归系数;(4)典范对应分析中,土壤含水量可以解释总特征根的22.7%,而土壤含盐量仅可以解释总特征根的1.3%;(5)高水高盐群落的稳定比最接近20/80,稳定性最高;低水低盐群落远离20/80,稳定性最低。改进后的Godron稳定性测定方法与物种种群密度变异系数方法得出的结果相同。综上可知,功能多样性和功能冗余两者中与物种多样性关系更为密切者对群落稳定性的影响也越大,且两者均可提高群落稳定性,也就证明冗余假说在温带干旱荒漠区域的隐域性植物群落中是成立的;群落稳定性、功能多样性、功能冗余及物种多样性主要是受土壤含水量的影响,土壤含盐量对其影响较小。     

Importance of scale,land‐use,and stream network properties for riparian plant communities along an urban gradient

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Susceptibility to a metal under global warming is shaped by thermal adaptation along a latitudinal gradient

Global warming and contamination represent two major threats to biodiversity that have the potential to interact synergistically. There is the potential for gradual local thermal adaptation and dispersal to higher latitudes to mitigate the susceptibility of organisms to contaminants and global warming at high latitudes. Here, we applied a space‐for‐time substitution approach to study the thermal dependence of the susceptibility of Ischnura elegans damselfly larvae to zinc in a common garden warming experiment (20 and 24 °C) with replicated populations from three latitudes spanning >1500 km in Europe. We observed a striking latitude‐specific effect of temperature on the zinc‐induced mortality pattern; local thermal adaptation along the latitudinal gradient made Swedish, but not French, damselfly larvae more susceptible to zinc at 24 °C. Latitude‐ and temperature‐specific differences in zinc susceptibility may be related to the amount of energy available to defend against and repair damage since Swedish larvae showed a much stronger zinc‐induced reduction of food intake at 24 °C. The pattern of local thermal adaptation indicates that the predicted temperature increase of 4 °C by 2100 will strongly magnify the impact of a contaminant such as zinc at higher latitudes unless there is thermal evolution and/or migration of lower latitude genotypes. Our results underscore the critical importance of studying the susceptibility to contaminants under realistic warming scenarios taking into account local thermal adaptation across natural temperature gradients.     

The impact of urbanization on taxonomic and functional similarity among bird communities

Aim To assess spatial relationships between avian community similarity and level of urbanization. We tested the following hypotheses for taxonomic similarity: Hypothesis A – the decline in taxonomic similarity with distance is stronger for the least urbanized locations compared to the most urbanized locations; Hypothesis B – the converse of Hypothesis A; and Hypothesis C – the decline in taxonomic similarity with distance is stronger for the most and least urbanized locations compared to locations with intermediate levels of urbanization. We also determined if increasing urbanization led to increased functional similarity within bird communities. Location South‐eastern Australia. Methods Bird species occurrence and density were sampled across 18 towns and 72 neighbourhoods occupying a spatial gradient of up to 882 km. We calculated pairwise values in taxonomic similarity among each town and neighbourhood using the Sørenson coefficient and a similarity measure that accounts for differences in species richness among locations. These values were plotted against pairwise distances among towns and neighbourhoods using linear regression to measure similarity–distance relationships. Neighbourhoods were categorized into four levels of urban development based on dwelling density, urban intensity, vegetation cover, or the density of native, nectar‐rich plants. Variation in bird species density across neighbourhoods and frequency of occurrence across broad habitat types (habitat specialization) was used to assess functional similarity of bird communities in each neighbourhood. Results Among the 18 towns, the decline in taxonomic similarity with distance was weak and significantly less than among regional bird communities that occurred within a 1° grid square around each town. Among the 72 neighbourhoods, similarity–distance relationships differed substantially depending on the level of urban development. Generally, the strongest decline in similarity with distance was for neighbourhoods with the highest and lowest dwelling density, urban intensity and vegetation cover, supporting Hypothesis C. The functional similarity of bird communities increased significantly with dwelling density, and decreased significantly with an increasing density of nectar plants. Main conclusions At the town level, urbanization appears to homogenize regional bird communities. Among neighbourhoods, similarity–distance relationships are substantially influenced by the level of urban development, and increasing urbanization leads to greater functional similarity within bird communities.     

广州城区生态安全岛典型植物群落的结构及物种多样性研究

以广州城区生态安全岛典型的自然和半自然型植物群落为研究对象,通过样方调查,对物种组成、区系成分、群落结构、珍稀濒危种、物种丰富度和多样性等要素进行了研究,结果表明:广州城区6处生态安全岛3.238hm²的调查样方中,共记录到维管束植物145科342属495种,热带亚热带区系特征明显。不同保护级别的珍稀濒危植物6科7属7种;群落垂直结构复杂,乔木层一般都能划分亚层。物种丰富度Partrick指数值在22-100之间变化、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数值在0.3861-3.0901之间变化、Simpson优势度指数值在0.1380-0.9261之间变化以及Pielou均匀度指数值J_sw在0.1289-0.9427之间变化,相似性系数S和Bray-Curtis指数存在一定差异。目前广州城区生态安全岛的植物群落随着正向演替的进行,物种多样性在不断增加。在区系上,生态安全岛与具有南亚热带地带性典型植被的鼎湖山联系较密切,虽然在物种多样性方面尚有一定差距,但演替时间较长的生态安全岛植物群落的物种多样性已相当于鼎湖山南亚热带地带性植被演替的后期阶段。植被之间的空间距离、与城市中心距离的远近等生境条件差异、人为干扰均对群落的物种多样性产生影响。因此,需加强保护,才能在高度城市化的区域保存这样一些具有地带性顶级群落的结构和物种多样性特征的植物群落。     

Recovery of understorey vegetation after release from a long history of sheep grazing in a herb‐rich woodland

The effects of stock grazing on native grassy ecosystems in temperate southern Australia are well documented. However, less is known about the potential of ecosystems to recover after a long history of stock grazing and, in particular, whether the removal of stock will have positive, negative or neutral impacts on biodiversity. We examined the response of understorey vegetation to the removal of sheep grazing in a herb‐rich Eucalyptus camaldulensis (red gum) woodland in western Victoria. Using a space‐for‐time chronosequence, woodlands were stratified into groups based on their time‐since‐grazing removal; these were long‐ungrazed (>20 years), intermediate‐time‐since‐grazing (9–14 years), recently ungrazed (5 years) and continuously grazed. We found significantly higher species density in long‐ungrazed sites relative to sites with a more recent grazing history. No differences were found in species density between continuously grazed sites and those ungrazed in the previous 14 years. Species composition differed with time‐since‐grazing removal and indicator species analysis detected several native species (including tall native geophytes and herbs) associated with long‐ungrazed sites that were absent or in low abundance in the more recently grazed sites. Seven of the eight species significantly associated with continuously grazed sites were exotic. Removal of sheep grazing in red gum woodlands can have positive benefits for understorey diversity but it is likely that recovery of key indicators such as native species will be slow.     

Constraints on colonization and species richness along a grassland productivity gradient: the role of propagule availability

An important goal in ecology is to discern under what habitat conditions community structure is primarily regulated by local ecological interactions and under what conditions community structure is more regulated by the pool of available colonists. I conducted a seed addition experiment in successional grassland to evaluate the relative significance of neighbourhood biotic interactions and propagule availability in regulating plant colonization and species richness along a natural gradient of grassland productivity. In undisturbed field plots, seed additions of 34 species led to an increase in species richness in locations of low productivity, an effect that declined in magnitude as productivity increased. In disturbed plots, seed additions led to a relatively constant increase in species richness at all levels of productivity. The results support the hypothesis that the role of propagule availability in regulating colonization dynamics and species richness declines in significance relative to local-scale competitive interactions as habitat productivity increases.     

城市公共绿地常见木本植物组成对鸟类群落的影响

快速城市化背景下, 城市公共绿地已经成为重要的鸟类栖息地, 其中的木本植物群落构成对鸟类群落结构有显著影响, 研究木本植物配置与鸟类多样性的关系对提升城市公共绿地作为鸟类栖息地的生态服务功能有重要的理论和应用价值。我们于2009–2010年间在上海市滨江森林公园就木本植物和鸟类群落的相互关系展开研究。样线法结合样点调查共记录到鸟类10目25科64种5,368只(次), 鸟类多度全年变化显著, 峰值分别出现在4月和11月。丰富度全年也呈现双峰型变化, 峰值出现在4月和12月。全年鸟类多样性(Simpson指数)差异显著, 10月最高, 8月最低。样方调查共记录到77种木本植物, 其中有14种(乔木9种、灌木5种)出现率超过5个样方, 定义为常见种, 其果期主要集中在9月到翌年2月, 其上常见林业致病害虫的发生盛期集中在5–11月。主成分分析显示, 常见木本植物上观察到的鸟类可划分为8个鸟类集团, Spearman秩相关检验显示秋冬季常见木本植物果期与植食性、肉食性、食虫性、杂食性等多个鸟类集团的多度均呈显著正相关。说明在秋冬季鸟类迁徙高峰期不同鸟类集团均能获得丰富的食物资源。就常见木本植物对鸟类群落的重要值进行排序, 结果显示, 大叶杨(Populus lasiocarpa)、枫杨(Pterocarya stenoptera)、香樟(Cinnamomum camphora)等乔木对鸟类重要值较高, 而灌木层对鸟类的重要性整体偏低, 说明滨江森林公园的灌木层作为鸟类栖息地的功能建设尚需加强。根据以上研究结果, 我们提出了提高上海城市公园鸟类多样性的植被配置建议。     

The distribution of some heathland plant species along a microtopographic gradient at Dinnet,Scotland, and their dehydration resistances

Along a microtopographic gradient in a heathland, five types of plant distribution were recognized: (i) Pyrola type, restricted to the crest of the rise; (ii) Vaccinium type, mainly on the steeper slopes and thin soil; (iii) Arctostaphylos type, ranging widely from the top to the bottom of the slope; (iv) Erica tetralix type, in the waterlogged wet places; and (v) Calluna type, showing the most extensive occurrence across the ranges of all the foregoing types. A clear separation of habitat was found between Erica cinerea and Erica tetralix. The stomatal transpiration of Calluna was the most active among five species studied. However, the cuticular transpiration rate is rather low. These facts all have a bearing on the widely dominant occurrence of Calluna in heathland. Vaccinium vitis-idaea and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi showed the lowest transpiration rates in the present study. Their cuticular transpiration rates are also low. These facts may be in accord with their inability to overcome Calluna under conditions of adequate water supply. However, they may become dominant in some sites, such as the terrace of thin soil. The buds of Erica tetralix are very susceptible to drought, because their lethal water deficit is very small. It may be a main cause of the restriction of this species to very wet places.     

Effects of insects on primary production in temperate herbaceous communities: a meta-analysis

Abstract.  1. The effects of insects on primary production in temperate herbaceous communities were investigated in a meta-analysis. The following hypotheses were tested: (1) the effect of insects on primary production depends on community type, (2) the effect of insects on primary production varies as a function of productivity, (3) insects have a greater effect on primary production in communities with low species diversity, and (4) insects have a larger effect on primary production during outbreaks.
2. Data were collected from 24 studies in which insecticides were used to suppress insects in self-sown or pastoral communities. Effect sizes were calculated from sprayed and control plot standing crop or yield, expressed as the log response ratio, ln (sprayed plot phytomass/control plot phytomass).
3. There was a significant increase in primary production as a result of insect suppression. Forb-dominated communities showed a more variable response than graminoid communities. During outbreaks, insects had a greater negative impact on primary production. Effect size was unaffected by productivity or plant species richness.
4. Although insects lower primary production in a diversity of temperate herbaceous communities, the basic measures by which such communities are often described have little effect on the proportional impact that insects have on primary production. While outbreaks are significant predictors of higher negative impact on primary production, causes of outbreaks are not always related to traits of the plant community.     

Plant traits and extinction in urban areas: a meta‐analysis of 11 cities

Aim Urban environments around the world share many features in common, including the local extinction of native plant species. We tested the hypothesis that similarity in environmental conditions among urban areas should select for plant species with a particular suite of traits suited to those conditions, and lead to the selective extinction of species lacking those traits. Location Eleven cities with data on the plant species that persisted and those that went locally extinct within at least the last 100 years following urbanization. Methods We compiled data on 11 plant traits for 8269 native species in the 11 cities and used hierarchical logistic regression models to identify the degree to which traits could distinguish species that persisted from those that went locally extinct in each city. The trait effects from each city were then combined in a meta‐analysis. Results The cities fell into two groups: those with relatively low rates of extinction (less than 0.05% species per year – Adelaide, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco), for which no traits reliably predicted the pattern of extinction, and those with higher rates of extinction (> 0.08% species per year – Auckland, Chicago, Melbourne, New York, Singapore and Worcester, MA), where short‐statured, small‐seeded plants were more likely to go extinct. Main conclusions Our analysis reveals patterns in trait selectivity consistent with local studies, suggesting some consistency in trait selection by urbanization. Overall, however, few traits reliably predicted the pattern of plant extinction across cities, making it difficult to identify a priori the extinction‐prone species most likely to be affected by urban expansion.     

Gall‐forming insect species richness along a non‐scleromorphic vegetation rainfall gradient in South Africa: The importance of plant community composition

Abstract Currently there is no single accepted hypothesis to explain gall‐forming insect species richness at a particular locality. Hygrothermal stress, soil nutrient availability, plant species richness, plant structural complexity, plant family or genus size, and host plant geographical range size have all been implicated in the determination of gall‐forming insect species richness. Previous studies of such richness at xeric sites have included predominantly scleromorphic vegetation, usually on nutrient‐poor soils. This study is the first to investigate gall‐forming insect species richness of xeric, non‐scleromorphic vegetation. Two habitat types were sampled at each of five localities across a rainfall gradient in the savanna biome of South Africa. The habitat types differed with respect to plant species composition and topography. Gall‐forming insect species richness did not increase with increasing hygrothermal stress or decreasing soil fertility. Rather, gall‐forming insect species richness was largely dependent on the presence of Terminalia sericea as well as other members of the Combretaceae and Mimosaceae. Plots where all these taxa were present had the highest gall‐forming insect species richness, up to 15 species, whereas plots with none of these taxa had a maximum of four galling‐insect species. Despite herb, shrub and tree strata not differing in gall‐forming insect species richness, insect galls were more common on woody than non‐woody plants. Also, stem galls were more frequent than apical or leaf galls. An alternative hypothesis to explain local gall‐forming insect species richness is suggested: galling insects may preferentially select those plant species with characteristics such as chemical toxicity, mechanical strength, degree of lignification or longevity that can be manipulated to benefit the galler. Thus plant community composition should be considered when attempting to explain gall‐forming insect species richness patterns.     

Effects of habitat size and isolation on species immigration–extinction dynamics and community nestedness in a desert river system

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