HUMAN NATURE AND ENHANCEMENT

Appeals to the idea of human nature are frequent in the voluminous literature on the ethics of enhancing human beings through biotechnology. Two chief concerns about the impact of enhancements on human nature have been voiced. The first is that enhancement may alter or destroy human nature. The second is that if enhancement alters or destroys human nature, this will undercut our ability to ascertain the good because, for us, the good is determined by our nature. The first concern assumes that altering or destroying human nature is in itself a bad thing. The second concern assumes that human nature provides a standard without which we cannot make coherent, defensible judgments about what is good.
I will argue (1) that there is nothing wrong, per se, with altering or destroying human nature, because, on a plausible understanding of what human nature is, it contains bad as well as good characteristics and there is no reason to believe that eliminating some of the bad would so imperil the good as to make the elimination of the bad impermissible, and (2) that altering or destroying human nature need not result in the loss of our ability to make judgments about the good, because we possess a conception of the good by which we can and do evaluate human nature. I will argue that appeals to human nature tend to obscure rather than illuminate the debate over the ethics of enhancement and can be eliminated in favor of more cogent considerations.     

Beyond the Simple Economics of Cesarean Section Birthing: Women's Resistance to Social Inequality

This research explored the reasonsfor women's preferences for cesarean sectionbirths in Pelotas, Brazil. It is argued thatwomen strategize and appropriate both medicalknowledge and the technology of cesareansections as a creative form of responding tolarger public debates (and the practices thatproduced them) on the need for and causes of(de)medicalization. Questioning the reasons whysome women engage more actively in this processthan others elucidates the ways local forms ofpower engage gender, economic and medicalideologies. The current debate on why somewomen prefer c-section deliveries, or indeed ifthey really do at all, has diverted attentionfrom the utility of the technology itself. Thispaper argues that for some women, the effort tomedicalize the birth process represents apractical solution to problems found within themedical system itself. I end by exploring thesocio-biological conditions that have produceda need for the technology.     

Diagnosing Suicides of Resolve: Psychiatric Practice in Contemporary Japan

In Japan, suicide has long been depicted as an act of free will, even aestheticized in the cultural notion suicide of resolve. Amid the record-high Japanese suicide rates since the 1990s, however, Japanese psychiatrists have been working to medicalize suicide and, in the process, confronting this deeply ingrained cultural notion. Drawing on two years of fieldwork at psychiatric institutions around Tokyo, I examine how psychiatrists try to persuade patients of the pathological nature of their suicidal intentions and how patients respond to such medicalization. I also explore psychiatrists' ambivalent attitudes toward pathologizing suicide and how they limit their biomedical jurisdiction by treating only what they regard as biological anomaly, while carefully avoiding the psychological realm. One ironic consequence of this medicalization may be that psychiatrists are reinforcing the dichotomy between normal and pathological, "pure" and "trivial," suicides, despite their clinical knowledge of the tenuousness of such distinctions and the ephemerality of human intentionality. Thus, while the medicalization of suicide is cultivating a conceptual space for Japanese to debate how to bring the suicidal back onto the side of life, it scarcely seems poised to supplant the cultural discourse on suicide that has elevated suicide to a moral act of self-determination.     

Medicine and Medicalization: A Response to Purdy

Many feminists are critical of the practices and institutions that medicalize people's lives, especially the lives of women and other members of marginalized groups. I argue that this critique does not necessarily imply a rejection of medicine. I give a brief analysis of the concept of medicalization that supports the view that one can desire medicine without desiring medicalization. I then discuss the relations among what is considered natural, socially constructed, and medicalized.     

‘Hip to be Irish’: ethnicity and Bourdieu's ‘Forms of Capital’

A ‘new Irish’ American ethnicity surfaced in the 1980s – according to a number of scholars and journalists – and is comprised of what some consider to be more ‘authentic’ and ‘traditional’ Irish cultural attributes. Defining authentic and traditional Irishness is complicated, however, by the recent influx and highly visible forms of economic capital and media attention stemming from the Celtic Tiger – the surge of economic prosperity that began in Ireland in the 1990s – and the commercializing of Irish music and dance – such as Riverdance. In this paper, I propose, through my study involving Irish language enthusiasts, that this ‘new’ form of Irish ethnicity is more the result of rather than the reason for this surge in popularity. I use Pierre Bourdieu's ‘Forms of Capital’ in questioning the ‘new Irish’ American ethnicity, arguing instead that a deeply seated, less-visible reservoir of cultural and social capital form the basis for this perceived contemporary ethnicity.     

The future of sociobiology: Counting babies or studying proximate mechanisms

Much of the debate over applying the theory of evolution to the study of human behaviour has died down because most critics now realize that the political ramifications of sociobiology are no more, or no less, than those of behaviourism, psychoanalysis or cognitive science. But controversy remains. It is scientific, and concerns the 'proper' way to do human sociobiology. I contrast the perspective of those sociobiologists who use the approach of behavioural ecology, and who have come to be known as 'darwinian anthropologists' or 'darwinian social scientists', with their critics, who refer to themselves as evolutionary or 'darwinian psychologists', describe the research methods that each uses, and ask if those issues must also be confronted by those studying animals.     

The Creativity of Natural Selection? Part I: Darwin,Darwinism, and the Mutationists

This is the first of a two-part essay on the history of debates concerning the creativity of natural selection, from Darwin through the evolutionary synthesis and up to the present. Here I focus on the mid-late nineteenth century to the early twentieth, with special emphasis on early Darwinism and its critics, the self-styled “mutationists.” The second part focuses on the evolutionary synthesis and some of its critics, especially the “neutralists” and “neo-mutationists.” Like Stephen Gould, I consider the creativity of natural selection to be a key component of what has traditionally counted as “Darwinism.” I argue that the creativity of natural selection is best understood in terms of (1) selection initiating evolutionary change, and (2) selection being responsible for the presence of the variation it acts upon, for example by directing the course of variation. I consider the respects in which both of these claims sound non-Darwinian, even though they have long been understood by supporters and critics alike to be virtually constitutive of Darwinism.     

Innateness and the Brain

The philosophical innateness debate has long relied onpsychological evidence. For a century, however, a parallel debate hastaken place within neuroscience. In this paper, I consider theimplications of this neuroscience debate for the philosophicalinnateness debate. By combining the tools of theoretical neurobiologyand learning theory, I introduce the ``problem of development' that alladaptive systems must solve, and suggest how responses to this problemcan demarcate a number of innateness proposals. From this perspective, Isuggest that the majority of natural systems are in fact innate. Lastly,I consider the acquistion strategies implemented by the human brain andsuggest that there is a rigorous way of characterizing these ``neuralconstructivist' strategies as not being strongly innate. Alternatives toinnateness are thus both rigorously definable and empirically supported.     

Medicalization as a moral problem for preventative medicine

Preventive medicine is sometimes criticised as it contributes to medicalization of normal life. The concept ‘medicalization’ has been introduced by Zola to refer to processes in which the labels ‘healthy’ and ‘ill’ are made relevant for more and more aspects of human life. If preventive medicine contributes to medicalization, would that be morally problematic? My thesis is that such a contribution is indeed morally problematic. The concept is sometimes used to express moral intuitions regarding the practice of prevention and health promotion. Through analysis of these intuitions as well as some other moral concerns, I give an explication of the moral problems of medicalization within the context of preventive medicine.     

Theoretical analysis of the molecular determinants responsible for the K(+) channel blocking by aminopyridines

This work presents a theoretical analysis of the molecular determinants responsible for the pharmacological activity (K(+) channel blocking) of aminopyridines. Thus, DFT theory at the B3LYP/cc-pVDZ level is applied to a series of active compounds: 2-aminopyridine, 3-aminopyridine, 4-aminopyridine, 3,4-diaminopyridine, and 4-aminoquinoleine. The two forms present in the biological environment, neutral and cationic (protonated), are considered in vacuum as well as in aqueous solution. The results show pyramidal and planar structures for the neutral and cationic forms, respectively. An analysis of the topology of the electron density show that an increase in conjugation between the pyridine ring and the amine group is responsible for the observed planarity of the protonated forms. By computing the Laplacian of the charge density we found the pyridine nitrogen to be the preferred protonation site, as a consequence of a much higher curvature of the charge density field. Also, from three-dimensional (3D) isoLaplacian diagrams a common reactivity pattern is only found in the charged forms. This reactivity pattern implies that interaction with the biological receptor site is mediated by electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding. Development of a physical-mathematical model allows identification of the specific relationship of the pharmacological activity index with the affinity for the receptor and the protonation ability.     

Future directions in folding: The multi-state nature of protein structure

All possible protein folding intermediates exist in equilibrium with the native protein at native as well as non-native conditions, with occupation determined by their free energy level. The study of these forms can illuminate the fundamental principles of protein structure and folding. Hydrogen exchange methods can be used to detect and characterize these partially unfolded forms at native conditions and as a function of mild denaturant and temperature. This information illuminates the requirements that govern the ability of kinetic and equilibrium methods to study folding intermediates.     

Authoritative Knowledge,the Technological Imperative and Women’s Responses to Prenatal Diagnostic Technologies

Theories about authoritative knowledge (AK) and the technological imperative have received varying levels of interest in anthropological, feminist and science and technology studies. Although the anthropological literature abounds with empirical considerations of authoritative knowledge, few have considered both theories through an empirical, inductive lens. Data extracted from an earlier study of 30 women’s responses to termination for fetal anomaly are reanalyzed to consider the women’s views of, and responses to, prenatal diagnostic technologies (PNDTs). Findings indicate that a small minority embrace the societal portrayal of technology as univalently positive, while the majority have nuanced and ambivalent responses to the use of PNDTs. Further, the interface of authoritative knowledge and the technological imperative suggests that AK derives not only from medical provider status and technology use, but also from the adequacy and trustworthiness of the information. The issue of timing and uncertainty of the information also are interrogated for their impact on women’s lives and what that can illuminate about the theories of AK and the technological imperative.     

Exploitations and their complications: the necessity of identifying the multiple forms of exploitation in pharmaceutical trials

Human subject trials of pharmaceuticals in low and middle income countries (LMICs) have been associated with the moral wrong of exploitation on two grounds. First, these trials may include a placebo control arm even when proven treatments for a condition are in use in other (usually wealthier) parts of the world. Second, the trial researchers or sponsors may fail to make a successful treatment developed through the trial available to either the trial participants or the host community following the trial. Many commentators have argued that a single form of exploitation takes place during human subject research in LMICs. These commentators do not, however, agree as to what kind of moral wrong exploitation is or when exploitation is morally impermissible. In this paper, I have two primary goals. First, I will argue for a taxonomy of exploitation that identifies three distinct forms of exploitation. While each of these forms of exploitation has its critics, I will argue that they can each be developed into plausible accounts of exploitation tied to different vulnerabilities and different forms of wrongdoing. Second, I will argue that each of these forms of exploitation can coexist in single situations, including human subject trials of pharmaceuticals. This lesson is important, since different forms of exploitation in a single relationship can influence, among other things, whether the relationship is morally permissible.     

Cleanliness in a Caste-less Context: Collective Negotiations of Purity and Pollution among Indo-Fijian Hindus

Despite the near elimination of caste in Fiji, Indo-Fijian Hindus widely adhere to pollution ideologies that were once associated with caste hierarchies. In this paper, I analyse how such ideologies have been transformed from demarcating caste status to indexing Hindu identity. Examining a hotly contested community debate that took place when members of a Hindu devotional singing group in Fiji were accused of praying while being ‘unclean’, I argue that the intense local interest incited by such allegations—along with highly creative acts of adherence that many Indo-Fijian women undertake to avoid similar accusations—can illuminate largely unexamined aspects of how women collectively comply with pollution prohibitions, while simultaneously investing them with further social and moral force.     

Reflections on the state of current debate over physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia

This paper is part of a larger project. My overall aim is to argue that the evolution of familiar forms of termination of life sustaining treatment, constituting so called passive euthanasia, has severely undercut the logic of every form of reasoning that has traditionally been used to oppose active euthanasia and assistance in suicide. Basically, there are two such forms of traditional opposition, each represented in a range of different versions. There is the inevitable argument concerning social utilities -- that permitting euthanasia and assisted suicide will have bad social consequences. But more fundamentally, the idea persists that killing is intrinsically worse than letting-die in some sense that justifies the current practice of prohibiting the first while allowing the latter. In this paper, I first consider this latter claim. My ultimate strategy, as I have said, is to show that the nature of certain things we have all come to approve regarding termination of treatment makes it next to impossible to convincingly explain, in either of these ways, what is wrong with certain forms of assistance in suicide and euthanasia. In the second part of this paper I take another step in this direction by discussing, in a preliminary way, a special case of the argument from social risks.     

REFELCTIONS ON THE STATE OF CURRENT DEBATE OVER PHYSICIAN-ASSISTED SUICIDE AND EUTHANASIA

This paper is part of a larger project. My overall aim is to argue that the evolution of familiar forms of termination of life sustaining treatment, constituting so called passive euthanasia,¹ has severaly undercut the logic of every form of reasoning that has traditionally been used to oppose active euthanasia and assistance in suicide. Basically, there are two such forms of traditional opposition, each represented in a range of different versions. There is the inevitable argument concerning social utilities — that permitting euthanasia and assisted suicide will have bad social consequences. But more fundamentally, the idea persists that killing is intrinsically worse than letting-die in some sense that justifies the current practice of prohibiting the first while allowing the latter. In this paper, I first consider this latter claim. My ultimate strategy, as I have said, is to show that the nature of certain things we have all come to approve regarding termination of treatment makes it next to impossible to convincingly explain, in either of these ways, what is wrong with certain forms of assistance in suicide and euthanasia. In the second part of this paper I take another step in this direction by discussing, in a preliminary way, a special case of the argument from social risks.     

The Other Side of Medicalization: Self-Medicalization and Self-Medication

The concept of medicalization has given rise to considerable discussion in the social sciences, focusing especially on the extension of medicine’s jurisdiction and its hold over our bodies through the reduction of social phenomena to individual biological pathologies. However, the process leading to medical treatment may start when individuals engage in self-medication and thus practice “self-medicalization.” But, can we apply to this concept the same type of analysis as the first and see merely the individual’s replication of the social control mechanisms to which he/she usually falls victim? This article aims to demonstrate that the medicalization individuals practice on themselves takes on a completely different meaning to that practiced by the medical profession. Empirical data collected in France show that self-medicalization, which may involve treating a problem medically when doctors believe it to be of a non-medical nature, can be an attempt by individuals to furnish a social explanation for their somatic problems and experiences. In this article, I examine the social and political significance of this phenomenon.     

The species–energy theory: a role for energy variability

Species–energy theory posits that energy availability regulates population sizes, extinction rates and ultimately species richness. This theory has focused mostly on total energy as a measure of energy availability. However, because energy variation can also influence population sizes and extinction rates, species–energy theory should arguably consider simultaneously both total energy and its variation. Using data on species richness of land birds and mammals, we compared the fit of three species–energy models including total energy, energy variation or both combined. We show that the combination of total energy and energy variation has greater predictive power than any of them considered separately. We also evaluate three crucial assumptions of this modified species–energy theory and show that they are supported by available data. These results illuminate the current debate on climate change, given that both average conditions and variability of climatic conditions are likely to change in the future.     

La médicalisation de la sexualité: Aspects sociologiques et historiques

The paper gives an introduction to a discussion about the process of medicalization of sexuality. This process is defined as: a social construction of knowledge on sexuality based on a biological conception of the body and health; clinical practice based on diagnosis and medical technologies; a strong relation between medecine and sexual morality. The paper is based on a study of the medical treatment of masturbation, sterilization and homosexuality in a historical perspective. Then the paper, shows how, currently, the process of medicalization of sexuality is twofold: on one hand stimulation of «normal» sexual activity (pharmacological treatment of sexual dysfunction) and inhibition of deviant sexual behavior (sexual abusers). At last, the paper, gives a short view on the potential transformations of the patient-doctor interaction.