华南虎存亡到了最后关头!

为更好地履行《中国生物多样性保护行动计划》所赋予的“中国森林生态保护系统优先保护区—梅花山”和“中国生物多样性保护优先重点项目—华南虎”的跨世纪重任,福建梅花山国家自然保护区管理处决定把“华南虎资源持续跟踪调查及其活动规律研究”作为今年重     

集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的系统保护规划

生物多样性和生态系统服务的保护与可持续管理是当今世界面临的重大挑战之一,但如何判识与优化集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护对象的保护优先区网络,相关研究还很有限。针对“三江并流”区,选取珍稀濒危与特有动植物物种和自然植被类型作为生物多样性保护对象,以调节服务(碳存储、固碳和土壤保持)、文化服务(自然游憩)和供给服务(水源供给)为生态系统服务保护对象。应用系统保护规划方法,首先判识出单一生物多样性和生态系统服务保护优先区;然后,分析这些保护优先区间的相关关系,并选择与生物多样性正相关的生态系统服务类型,判识集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的保护优先区;最后,评估了集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区在六类已建保护地中的保护状况。结果表明：(1)“三江并流”区多情景规划得到的生物多样性与生态系统服务保护优先区之间均呈正相关关系;(2)与分别针对生态系统服务和生物多样性的规划情景相比,集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区能够同时对两类保护对象提供最高的保护覆盖率;(3)集成生态系统服务和生物多样性保护优先区占研究区总面积的48.9%,其已建保护地覆盖率为32.5%,说明现有保护地体系仍存在保护...     

系统学与生物多样性

系统学家２００多年的努力,地球上最多仅有１／１０生物被命名．至今,系统学却被误认为已是古老学科,基础设施和人才走向没落。１９９２年《生物多样性公约》被批准后：对系统学重要性有了重新认识．１９９４年国际上提出了“２０００年系统学议程”。本文对“议程”提出的发现生物多样性、了解生物多样性及管理系统学知识等三大任务及每个任务的优先领域作了介绍．明确了系统学是保护和持续利用生物多样性的重要基础。应把系统学研究提到应有高度加以支持。     

2020年后生物多样性保护需要建立新的资金机制

《生物多样性公约》第十五次缔约方大会(COP15)将评估全球生物多样性保护已有进展, 审议并通过“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”, 后者是实现2050愿景“与自然和谐相处”的关键, 有助于达成联合国可持续发展的目标。生物多样性资金机制现在是将来也是实施全球生物多样性保护行动计划的重要保证。根据《生物多样性公约》信息交换所的数据, 目前各缔约方每年对本国生物多样性保护的投资额度占其当年国内生产总值(GDP)的比例比较小。中国作为发展中国家, 2015年时生物多样性保护资金投入占GDP比例为0.255%, 在世界各国中处于比较高的水平。近年中国对生物多样性保护的投入连年增加, 2019年时已经达约0.6%。有研究表明, 目前全球每年生物多样性保护资金的缺口至少500亿美元, 未来十年还有更大的资金缺口, 而且当前已有生物多样性资金渠道比较单一, 并存在一些短板, 远远不能满足生物多样性保护行动的要求, 急需建立新的资金机制, 调动更多资源, 推动2030年生物多样性保护任务和目标的实现。《生物多样性公约》的资金机制可以与包括《联合国气候变化框架公约》在内的其他相关环境公约协同增效, 比如基于自然的解决方案将生物多样性保护与气候变化减缓等环境目标联系起来。中国作为COP15的东道国, 有积极协调磋商的责任, 力求在大会上推动形成一个新的资金机制, 即全球生物多样性保护基金, 为“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”的实施保驾护航。新的生物多样性保护资金机制将独立于现有的生物多样性保护资金机制, 具有多样化投资渠道并引入绩效评估机制, 将经费与任务目标关联, 提高资金的使用效率, 支持发展中国家的生物多样性保护行动。     

生物多样性重要区域识别——国外案例、国内研究进展

生物多样性丧失已经成为全球重大环境问题之一,重要区域或重要物种的识别是制定和实施保护计划的首要步骤,生物多样性保护的优先性研究成为保护生物学研究的焦点之一。优先保护的概念很早就被提出,保护国际(Conservation International,CI)一直倡导的热点地区途径受到国际社会的重视,生物多样性重要区域(KBAs)可以是综合的,也可以是单一类群的重要区域,如不同的国家已经开展了鸟类重要区域(important bird areas,IBAs)、植物重要区域(important plants areas,IPAs)、蝴蝶重要区域(prime butterfly areas,PBAs)和两栖爬行动物重要区域(important amphibians and reptiles areas,IARAs)等的识别研究工作。集中力量优先保护一些重要的地区是目前生物多样性保护较为现实和高效的途径。以佛得角群岛(the Cape Verde Islands)、意大利(Italy)、荷兰(the Netherlands)分别依据动物、植物单一类群或多个类群组合进行生物多样性重要区域识别为例,介绍了几个国家的生物多样性重要区域识别经验,概述国内在生物多样性重要区域识别领域的研究现状,详细介绍了海南岛生物多样性保护优先区识别案例,同时以国务院2010年批准实施的《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2011—2030年)》划定的32个陆地生物多样性保护优先区为例,提出中国未来应全面开展生物多样性本底调查,在充分获取生物多样性分布数据的基础上,依据植被类型和物种多样性以及受威胁因素等,在32个陆地生物多样性保护优先区内进一步客观准确地识别生物多样性重要区域(热点中的热点或重要区域中的重要区域),为中国未来的保护地规划、生物多样性监测、政策制定等提供科学支撑。     

海洋生物多样性保护优先区域的确定

为了有效利用资源和资金,合理保护海洋生物多样性,海洋生物多样性保护优先区域的确定成为目前保护生物学领域的热点之一.本文首先探讨了生物多样性保护优先区域的定义和内涵,认为海洋生物多样性保护优先区域是指生物多样性丰富、物种特有化程度高、珍稀濒危物种分布集中、具有重要生态功能和过程的海洋区域.其次对保护优先区域确定的内容和方法进行了总结,主要包括单元区划、指标体系的构建及保护优先区域评估3个方面.继而根据我国海洋生物多样性现状提出保护优先区域确定的基本思路,即在海洋生物地理分区的基础上,根据物种和生境的生物多样性指标确定保护优先区域.最后针对存在问题提出建议,包括运用生物地理学方法进行单元区划、基于物种和生态系统的方法构建生物学指标以及信息网络数据库的构建等.     

中国生物多样性就地保护成效与展望

生物多样性就地保护是指通过开展自然保护地体系的建立与管理, 结合自然保护地以外其他有效的基于区域的保护措施(other effective area-based conservation measures, OECMs), 从而实现物种种群及其栖息地的保护与恢复以及保障和提升生态系统服务的目标。就地保护是实现2020年全球生物多样性保护目标最为重要的措施之一。本文从自然保护地数量与面积、代表性、有效性, 以及其他生物多样性就地保护措施等方面, 整理和综述了国内外近年来的相关报道。总体来看, 我国基本建立了具有中国特色的生物多样性就地保护与管理体系, 实施了各项生物多样性保护恢复措施, 取得了一系列重大进展。自然保护地的面积和数量均呈现上升趋势, 已覆盖陆域国土面积的18%, 对一些重要生态系统及重点保护物种的保护取得了一定成效。正在建设的10处国家公园体制试点提升了部分重点物种的保护连通性。自然保护区总体管理状况相对较好, 保护了90%以上的哺乳动物和97%的兰科植物。此外, 其他有效的基于区域的保护措施亦为生物多样性就地保护贡献了民间力量。在此基础上, 本文对照《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2011-2030年)》中对“加强生物多样性就地保护”的各项要求, 分析总结了当前我国生物多样性就地保护仍然存在的问题与不足, 具体表现在以下几个方面: 自然保护地整体保护能力仍有待提升; 生物多样性保护优先区域仍然存在保护空缺; 自然保护区管理质量有待提升; 缺乏公共协商机制; 自然保护地以外的其他就地保护工作仍在探索阶段等。在此基础上, 对将来我国生物多样性就地保护提出了进一步建议与展望: (1)制定更为具体和量化的生物多样性就地保护目标; (2)加大力度减少物种受威胁程度, 特别是受关注较少的物种; (3)以保障和提升生态系统服务为目标, 提升生态系统保护修复的系统性与整体性; (4)加强自然保护地以外的生物多样性就地保护; (5)完善长期监测体系, 为生物多样性就地保护成效评估提供数据支撑。本文可为“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”特别是就地保护目标的制定与实施提供参考。     

基于鸟类特有种亚种分化的保护优先性

我们以中国鸟类特有种为代表,基于鸟类物种分化程度来探讨多样性保护优先区。本文参照105种中国特有鸟种的分化等级来制作物种地理分布图。依据生物种的概念,给单型种赋值“1”,对具有n各亚种分化的物种赋值“n”。利用GIS叠加与制图功能对物种的分布做图以反映不同区域的物种分化等级。结果发现分布中心赋值很高并以同心圆形式向周边递减,反映了物种在中国西南部横断山区至秦岭高度分化的地理格局,并由此向外递减。作为全球25个生物多样性热点之一的横断山区,可能不仅是物种种级而且是种下级多样性的热点。因此,该地区的多样性保护优先性,不仅要考虑目前物种多样性分布的格局而且要考虑其未来发展     

生物多样性保护制度的构建探析

目前,全球生物多样性受到严重威胁,中国的生物多样性保护存在种种不足,应进一步构建中国生物多样性保护法律制度。     

滇西北县域生物多样性本底调查与评估

中国是世界上生物多样性最丰富的国家之一, 同时也是生物多样性受威胁最严重的国家之一。为了有效保护生物多样性, 2010年国务院批准实施了《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2010-2030年)》, 划定了32个陆地生物多样性保护优先区, 并设定了开展优先区生物多样性本底调查的战略目标、优先领域与优先行动。为此, 2010-2011年, 环境保护部联合中国科学院和高校的科研人员, 在滇西北开展了18个县的以县域为单元的生物多样性本底示范调查与研究。调查内容包括生态系统(植被类型)和物种两个层次。生态系统主要调查县域内植被类型的多样性, 完成了以群系为单位的植被类型编目; 物种层次主要调查县域内高等植物、脊椎动物、大型真菌的物种多样性组成、数量和用途等, 分析了特有物种和珍稀濒危物种数量等, 完成了县域物种编目。本文基于调查结果, 比较研究了不同县域间的生物多样性组成, 发现植被类型(108个群系)和物种(高等植物4,481种、脊椎动物625种、大型真菌222种)最丰富的县均为玉龙县。同时, 与历史记录对比研究发现, 滇西北的生物多样性分布数据十分欠缺, 严重影响了生物多样性保护的客观有效决策。生物多样性本底调查是生物多样性保护的一项基础工作, 本研究为中国未来开展大规模的生物多样性本底调查与评估提供了案例。     

Endemic vertebrates are the most effective surrogates for identifying conservation priorities among Brazilian ecoregions

Many studies have tested the performance of terrestrial vertebrates as surrogates for overall species diversity, because these are commonly used in priority‐setting conservation appraisals. Using a database of 3663 vertebrate species in 38 Brazilian ecoregions, we evaluated the effectiveness of various subsets for representing diversity of the entire vertebrate assemblage. Because ecoregions are established incorporating information on biotic assemblages, they are potentially more amenable to regional comparison than are national or state lists. We used 10 potential indicator groups (all species; all mammals, birds, reptiles, or amphibians; all endemic species; and endemic species within each class) to find priority sets of ecoregions that best represent the entire terrestrial vertebrate fauna. This is the first time such tests are employed to assess the effectiveness of indicator groups at the ecoregion level in Brazil. We show that patterns of species richness are highly correlated among mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ecoregion sets selected according to endemic species richness captured more vertebrate species per unit area than sets based on overall vertebrate richness itself, or than those selected at random. Ecoregion sets based on endemic bird, endemic reptile, or endemic amphibian richness also performed well, capturing more species overall than random sets, or than those selected based on species richness of one or all vertebrate classes within ecoregions. Our results highlight the importance of evaluating biodiversity concordance and the use of indicator groups as well as aggregate species richness. We conclude that priority sets based on indicator groups provide a basis for a first assessment of priorities for conservation at an infracontinental scale. Areas with high endemism have long been highlighted for conservation of species. Our findings provide evidence that endemism is not only a worthwhile conservation goal, but also an effective surrogate for the conservation of all terrestrial vertebrates in Brazil.     

Integrating Economic Costs and Biological Traits into Global Conservation Priorities for Carnivores

Background

Prioritization schemes usually highlight species-rich areas, where many species are at imminent risk of extinction. To be ecologically relevant these schemes should also include species biological traits into area-setting methods. Furthermore, in a world of limited funds for conservation, conservation action is constrained by land acquisition costs. Hence, including economic costs into conservation priorities can substantially improve their conservation cost-effectiveness.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We examined four global conservation scenarios for carnivores based on the joint mapping of economic costs and species biological traits. These scenarios identify the most cost-effective priority sets of ecoregions, indicating best investment opportunities for safeguarding every carnivore species, and also establish priority sets that can maximize species representation in areas harboring highly vulnerable species. We compared these results with a scenario that minimizes the total number of ecoregions required for conserving all species, irrespective of other factors. We found that cost-effective conservation investments should focus on 41 ecoregions highlighted in the scenario that consider simultaneously both ecoregion vulnerability and economic costs of land acquisition. Ecoregions included in priority sets under these criteria should yield best returns of investments since they harbor species with high extinction risk and have lower mean land cost.

Conclusions/Significance

Our study highlights ecoregions of particular importance for the conservation of the world''s carnivores defining global conservation priorities in analyses that encompass socioeconomic and life-history factors. We consider the identification of a comprehensive priority-set of areas as a first step towards an in-situ biodiversity maintenance strategy.     

Ecoregion Prioritization Suggests an Armoury Not a Silver Bullet for Conservation Planning

In the face of accelerating species extinctions, map-based prioritization systems are increasingly useful to decide where to pursue conservation action most effectively. However, a number of seemingly inconsistent schemes have emerged, mostly focussing on endemism. Here we use global vertebrate distributions in terrestrial ecoregions to evaluate how continuous and categorical ranking schemes target and accumulate endangered taxa within the IUCN Red List, Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE), and EDGE of Existence programme. We employed total, endemic and threatened species richness and an estimator for richness-adjusted endemism as metrics in continuous prioritization, and WWF''s Global200 and Conservation International''s (CI) Hotspots in categorical prioritization. Our results demonstrate that all metrics target endangerment more efficiently than by chance, but each selects unique sets of top-ranking ecoregions, which overlap only partially, and include different sets of threatened species. Using the top 100 ecoregions as defined by continuous prioritization metrics, we develop an inclusive map for global vertebrate conservation that incorporates important areas for endemism, richness, and threat. Finally, we assess human footprint and protection levels within these areas to reveal that endemism sites are more impacted but have more protection, in contrast to high richness and threat ones. Given such contrasts, major efforts to protect global biodiversity must involve complementary conservation approaches in areas of unique species as well as those with highest diversity and threat.     

Relative need for conservation assessments of vascular plant species among ecoregions

Aim (1) To determine the relative need for conservation assessments of vascular plant species among the world’s ecoregions given under‐assessed species distributions; (2) to evaluate the challenge posed by the lack of financial resources on species assessment efforts; and (3) to demonstrate the utility of nonlinear mixed‐effects models with both homoscedastic and heteroscedastic error structures in the identification of species‐rich ecoregions. Location Global. Methods We identified the world’s ecoregions that contain the highest vascular plant species richness after controlling for area using species–area relationship (SAR) models built within a mixed‐effects multi‐model framework. Using quantitative thresholds, ecoregions with the highest plant species richness, historical habitat loss and projected increase in human population density were deemed to be most in need of conservation assessments of plant species. We used generalized linear models to test if countries that overlap with highly important ecoregions are poorer compared with others. Results We classed ecoregions into nine categories based on the relative need for conservation assessments of vascular plant species. Ecoregions of highest relative need are found mostly in the tropics, particularly Southeast Asia, Central America, Tropical Andes and the Cerrado of South America, and the East African montane region and its surrounding areas. Countries overlapping with ecoregions deemed important for conservation assessments are poorer as measured by their capita gross national income than the other countries. The nonlinear mixed modelling framework was effective in reducing residual spatial autocorrelation compared with nonlinear models comprised of only fixed effects. In contrasting multiple SAR models to identify species‐rich ecoregions, there was not one SAR model that fitted best across all biomes. Not all SAR models displayed homoscedastic errors; therefore it is important to consider models with both homoscedastic and heteroscedastic error structures. Main conclusions We propose that conservation assessments should be conducted first in ecoregions with the greatest predicted species richness, historical habitat loss and future human population increase. As ecoregions deemed to be important for conservation assessments are located in the poorest countries, we urge international aid agencies and botanic gardens to cooperate with both local and international scientists to fund and implement conservation assessment programmes there.     

水生态保护目标制定的理论与应用

我国目前处于生态环境管理的转型期，尚未形成统领水生生物、生物栖息地、水质与水量等要素的水生态保护体系。在总结相关水生态研究成果的基础上，梳理形成了基于水生态系统时空尺度和状态梯度效应理论的水生态保护目标制定构想与方法，分析了淡水生物完整性对自然地理要素、水环境压力、栖息地质量的响应机制，提出以水生态“功能分区-状态评价-问题诊断-目标预设-可达性评估-目标确定”为主线的水生态保护目标制定技术体系，研发了生物完整性评价、水生态保护目标预设和可达性分析等技术方法。以江苏省常州市为典型水生态功能区应用案例，验证了技术体系的适用性与可行性，取得良好的应用效果。水生态保护目标制定理论和方法方面的研究探索可为全国相关工作提供参考依据。     

Freshwater mussel (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Unionoida) richness and endemism in the ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar based on comprehensive museum sampling

The objective of this study was to assess freshwater mussel (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Unionoida) species distributions among the freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar to discover areas of high richness and endemism. These are among the top criteria for identifying biodiversity hotspots and establishing conservation priorities. Distributions were determined from museum specimens in 17 collections. In total, 5,612 records for 87 unionoid species could each be assigned to one of 90 freshwater ecoregions. The majority of species (55%) are known from only one (34 spp.) or two (14) ecoregions. Only three are known from more than 20 ecoregions: Etheria elliptica (38 ecoregions), Chambardia wahlbergi (25), and Mutela rostrata (21). The most species-rich ecoregions are Lake Victoria Basin (17 spp.), Upper Nile (16), Upper Congo (14), Senegal–Gambia (13), and Sudanic Congo–Oubangi (13). Those with the most endemic species are Lake Tanganyika (8 spp.), Lake Victoria Basin (6), Bangweulu–Mweru (4), and Lake Malawi (3). Twenty-five ecoregions have no known freshwater mussels. These patterns are significantly correlated with fish and general freshwater mollusk richness. Unionoid richness also varies significantly among major habitat types. These patterns are relevant to biogeography and conservation and indicate areas in need of further research. We argue that freshwater mussels are valuable as focal species for conservation assessments, and they themselves merit management consideration for their ecosystem functions and distributions in imperiled habitats. It is recommended that field surveys be conducted to determine the current status of species in all areas of Africa and Madagascar.     

Global patterns of plant diversity and floristic knowledge

Aims We present the first global map of vascular plant species richness by ecoregion and compare these results with the published literature on global priorities for plant conservation. In so doing, we assess the state of floristic knowledge across ecoregions as described in floras, checklists, and other published documents and pinpoint geographical gaps in our understanding of the global vascular plant flora. Finally, we explore the relationships between plant species richness by ecoregion and our knowledge of the flora, and between plant richness and the human footprint – a spatially explicit measure of the loss and degradation of natural habitats and ecosystems as a result of human activities. Location Global. Methods Richness estimates for the 867 terrestrial ecoregions of the world were derived from published richness data of c. 1800 geographical units. We applied one of four methods to assess richness, depending on data quality. These included collation and interpretation of published data, use of species–area curves to extrapolate richness, use of taxon‐based data, and estimates derived from other ecoregions within the same biome. Results The highest estimate of plant species richness is in the Borneo lowlands ecoregion (10,000 species) followed by nine ecoregions located in Central and South America with ≥ 8000 species; all are found within the Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests biome. Among the 51 ecoregions with ≥ 5000 species, only five are located in temperate regions. For 43% of the 867 ecoregions, data quality was considered good or moderate. Among biomes, adequate data are especially lacking for flooded grasslands and flooded savannas. We found a significant correlation between species richness and data quality for only a few biomes, and, in all of these cases, our results indicated that species‐rich ecoregions are better studied than those poor in vascular plants. Similarly, only in a few biomes did we find significant correlations between species richness and the human footprint, all of which were positive. Main conclusions The work presented here sets the stage for comparisons of degree of concordance of plant species richness with plant endemism and vertebrate species richness: important analyses for a comprehensive global biodiversity strategy. We suggest: (1) that current global plant conservation strategies be reviewed to check if they cover the most outstanding examples of regions from each of the world's major biomes, even if these examples are species‐poor compared with other biomes; (2) that flooded grasslands and flooded savannas should become a global priority in collecting and compiling richness data for vascular plants; and (3) that future studies which rely upon species–area calculations do not use a uniform parameter value but instead use values derived separately for subregions.     

The rarest and least protected forests in biodiversity hotspots

The goal of biodiversity hotspots is to identify regions around the world where conservation priorities should be focused. We undertake a geographic information system and remote sensing analysis to identify the rarest and least protected forests in biodiversity hotspots. World Wildlife Fund ecoregions with terrestrial forest were subset from 34 biodiversity hotspots and forest cover calculated from GlobCover data at a 300?m pixel resolution. There were 276 ecoregions in 32 biodiversity hotspots classified as containing terrestrial forests. When the first quartile of forest ecoregions was subset based on smallest extent of forest cover in protected areas, there were 69 rare forests identified within 20 biodiversity hotspots. Most rare forest ecoregions (45) occurred on islands or island archipelagos and 47 rare forest ecoregions contained less than 10?% forest cover in protected areas. San Félix-San Ambrosio Islands Temperate Forests, Tubuai Tropical Moist Forests, Maldives-Lakshadweep-Chagos Archipelago Tropical Moist Forests, and Yap Tropical Dry Forests were identified as the least protected and possibly most vulnerable forests within biodiversity hotspots. These ecoregions cover less than 500?km², forest cover is less than 50?km², and there are no protected areas. There is a need to update classifications and boundaries of protected areas, insure that islands are included in global land cover datasets, and identify levels of endemism and endangerment within forest ecoregions. This should improve our ability to compare, prioritize, and monitor forests in biodiversity hotspots.     

Global conservation strategies for two clades of snakes: combining taxon-specific goals with general prioritization schemes

Aim We present the first attempt of mapping global conservation priorities for two snake clades, Viperidae and Elapidae. We compared the global conservation priorities of each clade with the nine global conservation schemes defined by Brooks et al. to evaluate how effective these schemes are in ensuring the preservation of viperid and elapid biodiversity. Location Global. Methods Based on range maps of 228 species of Viperidae and 224 species of Elapidae, we used systematic conservation planning methods of complementarity and irreplaceability to generate a set of conservation networks under two cost scenarios: (1) minimizing conservation‐human development conflicts and (2) maximizing environmental suitability for high snake richness. Analysis of variance was used to investigate whether the mean irreplaceability of cells matching the areas covered by each of the nine global prioritization schemes in Brooks et al. was higher than the mean irreplaceability of cells located outside these areas. Results Overall, few areas showed irreplaceability higher than 0.5 based on a goal of representing 25% of the species’ ranges. The conservation networks generated in expectation of low conflicts between human development and conservation were quite different from the networks of high environmental suitability. Areas with higher irreplaceability coincided with the regions covered by global schemes of Endemic Bird Areas (for Viperidae and Elapidae) and High‐Biodiversity Wilderness (for Elapidae). Main conclusions Our findings indicated the existence of viable conservation opportunities for these two snake groups. This study can be viewed as a way to overcome, at least in part, the recent criticism concerning the independent development of several global conservation priorities by evaluating which groups of organisms are better represented in each of them. More than simply determining priorities for snakes’ conservation, our analyses showed that the development of parallel priority‐setting initiatives can be reconciled with those strategies for which financial resources are already being designed.