Distinguishing intrapopulational categories of plants by their insect faunas: galls on rabbitbrush

Within a population of rubber rabbitbrush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, the subspecies C. nauseosus consimilis and C. nauseosus hololeucus, and a third unidentified group were better segregated by their insect galls, than by differences in plant morphology. This level of segregation was further increased when morphological measurements and counts of insect galls were analyzed simultaneously. We interpret this result to mean that plant morphology and insect distributions reflect two different, perhaps overlapping, portions of the host's genome. By using both sets of characters concurrently, rather than either set independently, we increased the portion of the plant's genome being sampled and increased the probability of detecting differences among host genotypes. Hence, knowledge of the distributions of insect galls may be useful for augmenting the level of separation, obtained by morphological measurements, among intrapopulational categories of plant genotypes. This application may be of greatest benefit when hybridization blurs morphological distinctions among plant taxa, when morphological traits are highly variable within genotypes, or when ephemeral morphological traits (e.g., leaves, flowers) are not available for measurements.     

Distribution of invertebrates on foliage in forests of south-eastern Australia

Nearly 1500 foliage samples were collected from a total of 156 plant species, distributed at 16 study sites representing a wide range of forests and woodlands in south-eastern Australia. Samples were collected in all months. Invertebrates present in samples were counted, sorted into 13 categories, and the number present (> 3 mm in length) converted into density estimates. Densities of all invertebrates combined and invertebrate diversity were also calculated. Despite high variability there were some obvious distributional patterns for most categories. Three major dichotomies affected abundance and distribution of invertebrates: these were presence or absence of flowers, whether the plant species was Eucalyptus or other, and if Eucalyptus, whether the plant species was Symphyomyrtus or Monocalyptus. The presence of flowers in foliage samples increased the abundance of most invertebrate taxa. Compared to foliage of non-Eucalyptus species, Eucalyptus foliage had more lerp-forming psyllids and miscellaneous larvae, but fewer Arachnida, Coleoptera, Psocoptera, Hemiptera (other), Thysanoptera, Diptera, and total arthropods. Foliage of Symphyomyrtus species had higher densities of most categories (and particularly lerp-forming psyllids) than that of Monocalyptus. There were seasonal variations in abundance in most invertebrate taxa, but these patterns were different for Eucalyptus and non-Eucalyptus species. For most sites abundance of all arthropods combined was lowest in winter, but this decline was not especially pronounced, and was reversed at more xeric sites. For most categories there were significant differences between study sites in abundance and for some this was related to position of sites on a moisture gradient. In general total arthropod densities were highest at intermediate and xeric sites. There were some significant differences in arthropod communities for the same plant species at different study sites. Sample height, plant height, and the ratio of these were relatively unimportant variables. Likewise, the ratio of leaf width: leaf length was not significantly correlated with abundance for any invertebrate category across 128 plant species, but mean leaf size was negatively correlated with densities of Arachnida and total invertebrates. The distributions of some invertebrate categories were inter-correlated.     

Classical and dynamic morphology: toward a synthesis through the space of forms

In plant morphology, most structures of vascular plants can easily be assigned to pre-established organ categories. However, there are also intermediate structures that do not fit those categories associated with a classical approach to morphology. To integrate the diversity of forms in the same general framework, we constructed a theoretical morphospace based on a variety of modalities where it is possible to calculate the morphological distance between plant organs. This paper gives emphasis on shoot, leaf, leaflet and trichomes while ignoring the root. This will allow us to test the hypothesis that classical morphology (typology) and dynamic morphology occupy the same theoretical morphospace and the relationship between the two approaches remains a question of weighting of criteria. Our approach considers the shoot (i.e. leafy stem) as the basic morphological structural unit. A theoretical data table consisting of as many lines as there are possible combinations between different modalities of characters of a typical shoot was generated. By applying a principal components analysis (PCA) to these data it is possible to define a theoretical morphospace of shoots. Typical morphological elements (shoots, leaves, trichomes) and atypical structures (phylloclades, cladodes) including particular cases representing ‘exotic’ structures such as the epiphyllous appendages of Begonia and ‘water shoot’ and ‘leaf’ of aquatic Utricularia were placed in the morphospace. The more an organ differs from a typical shoot, the further away it will be from the barycentre of shoots. By giving a higher weight to variables used in classical typology, the different organ categories appear to be separate, as expected. If we do not make any particular arbitrary choice in terms of character weighting, as it is the case in the context of dynamic morphology, the clear separation between organs is replaced by a continuum. Contrary to typical structures, “intermediate” structures are only compatible with a dynamic morphology approach whether they are placed in the morphospace based on a ponderation compatible with typology or dynamic morphology. The difference in points of view between typology and continuum leads to a particular mode of weighting. By using an equal weighting of characters, contradictions due to the ponderation of characters are avoided, and the morphological concepts of continuum’ and ‘typology’ appear as sub-classes of ‘process’ or ‘dynamic morphology’.     

The Relationship Between Plant Use and Plant Diversity in the Bolivian Andes,with Special Reference to Medicinal Plant Use

This paper examines the relationship between plant use and plant diversity in 36 transects of 50 × 2 m² laid out in the surroundings of Apillapampa, a community of Quechua subsistence farmers in the Bolivian Andes. Use data were obtained through individual interviews with 13 local key participants and were organized in eight plant use categories. Regression slope analysis showed that for nearly all plant use categories the proportion of used species to available species decreased with increasing plant diversity in transects. Two main groups of plant use categories could be distinguished: diversity followers, for which the number of useful plant species in transects keeps abreast with increasing plant diversity (e.g. medicine) and diversity laggards, for which the number of useful plant species increases only moderately with increasing diversity (e.g., food). We hypothesize that the main difference between both groups is related to the human process of plant selection. In categories that are diversity followers, plants are partly selected and used in an immediacy context, whereby emic perception of efficacy may be of secondary importance. By contrast, plant use in categories of diversity laggards is strongly guided by emic perception of efficacy because plant use takes place in a context in which plants are generally not needed on a short notice.     

In Vitro Organogenetic Responses of Gloriosa superba

An efficient protocol was developed for regeneration of healthy plant derived from six categories of explants from both in vivo and in vitro raised plants, viz. roots, corm buds (dormant and nondormant), young leaves, stems, pedicels, and shoot tips from aerial shoots. MS medium supplemented with various concentrations and combinations of auxin, cytokinin, and organic acids was used. 98% of callus induction occurred in nondormant corm bud explants. The greatest number of multiple shoots (57) was observed in corm-derived calluses. Vigorous root formation occurred in all cases when multiple shoots were derived. Histomorphogenetic studies revealed that not only the origin of shoot and root buds in in vitro systems, but the morphology and structure of leaves resemble those of in vivo plants too.     

Genotypic variation of rice in phosphorus acquisition from iron phosphate: Contributions of root morphology and phosphorus uptake kinetics

To elucidate the contributions of rice root morphology and phosphorus uptake kinetics to P uptake by rice from iron phosphate, a sand culture experiment with either sufficient P supply (control treatment, 10 mg P/l as NaH₂PO₄) or Fe-P as the only source of P (40 mg P/pot as FePO₄ × 4H₂O) and a solution culture experiment supplied with either sufficient P (10 mg P/l) or deficient P (0.5 mg P/l) were conducted. Eight rice cultivars, which differed in P uptake from Fe-P, were investigated. Plant P uptake, root morphology, and P uptake kinetics were determined. There were significant (P < 0.05) genotypic variations in both plant dry weight and P uptake per plant among eight rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars when supplied with Fe-P as the P source. The Fe-P treatment significantly (P < 0.05) decreased plant dry weight, P uptake per plant, and P concentration in plant dry matter of all cultivars in comparison with the control plants. In Fe-P treated plants, significant (P < 0.05) genotypic variation was shown in root morphology, including root length, surface area, volume, and number of lateral roots. The P uptake per plant from Fe-P by rice was significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with root surface area and root volume as well as with the number of lateral roots, suggesting that the ability of rice to absorb P from Fe-P was closely related to root morphology. Low P supply in solution significantly increased the I _max (P < 0.05), but significantly decreased the K _M (P < 0.05) for P absorption by all rice cultivars. We supposed that kinetic characteristics of root P uptake could not account for the ability of rice to absorb P from Fe-P. Published in Russian in Fiziologiya Rastenii, 2007, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 260–266. The text was submitted by the authors in English.     

The biogeography of invasive alien plants in California: an application of GIS and spatial regression analysis

The spatial distribution of invasive alien plants has been poorly documented in California. However, with the increased availability of GIS software and spatially explicit data, the distribution of invasive alien plants can be explored. Using bioregions as defined in Hickman (1993 ), I compared the distribution of invasive alien plants (n = 78) and noninvasive alien plants (n = 1097). The distribution of both categories of alien plants was similar with the exception of a higher concentration of invasive alien plants in the North Coast bioregion. Spatial autocorrelation analysis using Moran's I indicated significant spatial dependence for both invasive and noninvasive alien plant species. I used both ordinary least squares (OLS) and spatial autoregressive (SAR) models to assess the relationship between alien plant species distribution and native plant species richness, road density, population density, elevation, area of sample unit, and precipitation. The OLS model for invasive alien plants included two significant effects; native plant species richness and elevation. The SAR model for invasive alien plants included three significant effects; elevation, road density, and native plant species richness. The SAR model for noninvasive alien plants resulted in the same significant effects as invasive alien plants. Both invasive and noninvasive alien plants are found in regions with low elevation, high road density, and high native‐plant species richness. This is in congruity with previous spatial pattern studies of alien plant species. However, the similarity in effects for both categories of alien plants alludes to the importance of autecological attributes, such as pollination system, dispersal system and differing responses to disturbance in the distribution of invasive plant species. In addition, this study emphasizes the critical importance of testing for spatial autocorrelation in spatial pattern studies and using SAR models when appropriate.     

Teruelia diezii gen. et sp. nov.: an early polysporangiophyte from the Lower Devonian of the Iberian Peninsula

A new basal land plant, Teruelia diezii gen. et sp. nov., is described from the shallow‐water marine deposits of the Lower Devonian (Lochkovian–Pragian) Nogueras Formation of the Iberian Peninsula (north Gondwana palaeocontinent). Teruelia is preserved as a compression fossil and consists of isotomously branched, robust stems terminated in large, fusiform, twisted sporangia. This morphology suggests that Teruelia is very probably equivalent to Aglaophyton, a permineralized early polysporangiophyte known up to now only from the Lower Devonian (early Pragian to ?earliest Emsian) Rhynie Chert in Scotland (Laurussia palaeocontinent), which represents an early terrestrial hot‐spring ecosystem. Accepted phylogenies identify Aglaophyton as sister to vascular plants. Our phylogeny‐based results identify the Aglaophyton/Teruelia biological entity (i.e. Aglaophyton anatomical characters plus Teruelia external morphology) as the most direct vascular plant precursor. It shows that at least one Rhynie Chert type plant had a much wider distribution than previously known and suggests that Aglaophyton was not restricted to hydrothermal environments, unlike other Rhynie Chert plants.     

Plant as Object within Herbal Landscape: Different Kinds of Perception

This contribution takes the notion of herbal landscape (a mental field associated with plants used to cure or prevent diseases and established within specific cultural and climatic zones) as a starting point. The authors argue that the features by which a person recognises the plant in the natural growing environment is of crucial importance for the classification and the use of plants within the folk tradition. The process of perception of the plant can be divided into analytical categories according to the sign concept of Charles Sanders Peirce. Whereas the plant can be seen as the object, the feature(s) the plant is recognised by is (are) the representamen(s), and the image of the plant within the herbal landscape can be understood as the interpretant. Different methods of perception of the signs within the herbal landscape are demonstrated comparing the herbal knowledge acquired from the herbals with the method of plant recognition learned in the traditional way. The first can be looked at with the terms of Tim Ingold as transportation, using plant features to go across, leaving all other signs present in the landscape unnoticed. The wayfarer, guided by signs learned within the context of surroundings, walks along and perceives the plant as a part of the herbal landscape. Although the examples analysed come from Estonian ethnobotany, the method of analysis can be applied in ethnobotanical research worldwide.     

Soil and water erosion under different plant species in a semiarid river valley, SW China: the effects of plant morphology

The small-scale effects of plant morphology in improving soil quality and reducing runoff and soil loss have remained unclear, especially in some arid environments with sparse vegetation. We selected three representative species with contrasting morphologies (Artemisia gmelinii; Ajania potaninii; Pulicaria chrysantha) to examine the effects of plant morphology on soil quality, runoff, and soil loss in the dry-warm river valley of the upper reach of Minjiang River, SW China. Runoff events were monitored from July through October 2006 using runoff plots on a micro scale (<40 × 40 cm²) on a south-facing slope. The observation duration for rainfall and runoff events can be divided into two stages. Higher runoff depth, but lower soil loss per event occurred at the second stage as compared with the first stage due to the differences in rainfall, plant, and soil surface characteristics. The two herbs, A. gmelinii and P. chrysantha, had greater improvements on soil quality yielding high soil nutrient content and low soil compactness, while the effectiveness of the small shrub, A. potaninii, was minimal. Relative to bare surface (control treatment), the effectiveness of reducing runoff depth per event was 64.9, 66.6 and 38.0%, and reducing soil loss 65.5, 59.3 and 69.9% for A. gmelinii, A. potaninii, and P. chrysantha, respectively. All three plant species can improve soil quality and reduce runoff and soil loss, but their effects vary, which implies that plant morphology has to be considered while selecting species for ecosystem restoration.     

15种蹄盖蕨科植物叶表皮形态特征的研究

利用光学显微镜对蹄盖蕨科15种植物的叶表皮形态特征进行观察和研究。结果表明:蹄盖蕨科15种植物的上、下表皮细胞均为无规则型,垂周壁为凹凸状或深波状;上表皮细胞长宽比在1.0~3.2之间,下表皮细胞长宽比在1.0~2.6之间;在这15种植物中共观察到6种气孔器类型,即极细胞型、腋下细胞型、聚合极细胞型、聚腋下细胞型、无规则四细胞型和无规则型,每种植物具有3~4种气孔器类型,气孔均为下生型,多呈椭圆形。气孔的长宽比在1.3~2.1之间;气孔密度在32~90个/mm2之间;气孔指数为17.7%~40.9%。依据上述叶表皮形态特征将15种蹄盖蕨科植物分为3类,即双盖蕨类、蹄盖蕨类和对囊蕨类。该研究在一定程度上支持Christenhusz分类系统对蹄盖蕨科的划分,为蹄盖蕨科植物的系统分类及演化研究提供基础资料。     

Natural plant genetic engineer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium rhizogenes</Emphasis>: role of T-DNA in plant secondary metabolism

Agrobacterium rhizogenes is a natural plant genetic engineer. It is a gram-negative soil bacterium that induces hairy root formation. Success has been obtained in exploring the molecular mechanisms of transferred DNA (T-DNA) transfer, interaction with host plant proteins, plant defense signaling and integration to plant genome for successful plant genetic transformation. T-DNA and corresponding expression of rol genes alter morphology and plant host secondary metabolism. During transformation, there is a differential loss of a few T-DNA genes. Loss of a few ORFs drastically affect the growth and morphological patterns of hairy roots, expression pattern of biosynthetic pathway genes and accumulation of specific secondary metabolites.     

Age categories and corresponding gender characteristics of five Crested Francolin subspecies (genus Dendroperdix)

Fifty-five Crested Francolins, Dendroperdix sephaena sephaena, were trapped, marked, retrapped and observed from 1984 to 1988 to assess and describe gender and age criteria based on morphological measurements and plumage characteristics on the farm La Boheme (Rustenburg, North West province, South Africa). The measurements and characteristics were compared with skin specimens of the other recognied subspecies endemic to Africa, namely D. s. zambesiae, D. s. grantii, D. s. spilogaster and D. s. rovuma. Selected biometric parameters of specimens were measured at the Ditsong Museum of Natural History and the American Museum of Natural History in 2014. The purpose of this study was to describe age categories (excluding chicks) with corresponding gender characteristics based on morphology and plumage features. This study revealed six definitive age/gender categories. A combination of spur length (or absence of long spurs in the case of females) and feather colouration patterns on the back, tail coverts, wing coverts and mantle are reliable indicators of different gender/age categories in all D. sephaena subspecies in Africa.     

Construction of a comparative RFLP map of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Echinochloa crus-galli</Emphasis> toward QTL analysis of flooding tolerance

To analyze quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting flooding tolerance and other physiological and morphological traits in Echinochloa crus-galli, a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) map was constructed using 55 plants of the F₂ population (E. crus-galli var. praticola × E. crus-galli var. formosensis). One hundred forty-one loci formed 41 linkage groups. The total map size was 1,468 cM and the average size of linkage groups was 35.8 cM. The average distance between markers was 14.7 cM and the range was 0–37.2 cM. Early comparisons to the genetic maps of other taxa suggest appreciable synteny with buffelgrass (Pennisetum spp.) and sorghum (Sorghum spp.). One hundred ninty-one F₂ plants were used to analyze QTLs of flooding tolerance, plant morphology, heading date, number of leaves, and plant height. For flooding tolerance, two QTLs were detected and one was mapped on linkage group 24. Other traits, including plant morphology, heading date, number of leaves, and plant height were highly correlated. Three genomic regions accounted for most of the mapped QTLs, each explaining 2–4 of the significant marker-trait associations. The high observed correlation between the traits appears to result from QTLs with a large contribution to the phenotypic variance at the same or nearby locations.Communicated by D.J. Mackill     

Overexpression of a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panax ginseng</Emphasis> tonoplast aquaporin alters salt tolerance,drought tolerance and cold acclimation ability in transgenic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis> plants

Water movement across cellular membranes is regulated largely by a family of water channel proteins called aquaporins (AQPs). Since several abiotic stresses such as, drought, salinity and freezing, manifest themselves via altering water status of plant cells and are linked by the fact that they all result in cellular dehydration, we overexpressed an AQP (tonoplast intrinsic protein) from Panax ginseng, PgTIP1, in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants to test its role in plant’s response to drought, salinity and cold acclimation (induced freezing tolerance). Under favorable conditions, PgTIP1 overexpression significantly increased plant growth as determined by the biomass production, and leaf and root morphology. PgTIP1 overexpression had beneficial effect on salt-stress tolerance as indicated by superior growth status and seed germination of transgenic plants under salt stress; shoots of salt-stressed transgenic plants also accumulated greater amounts of Na⁺ compared to wild-type plants. Whereas PgTIP1 overexpression diminished the water-deficit tolerance of plants grown in shallow (10 cm deep) pots, the transgenic plants were significantly more tolerant to water stress when grown in 45 cm deep pots. The rationale for this contrasting response, apparently, comes from the differences in the root morphology and leaf water channel activity (speed of dehydration/rehydration) between the transgenic and wild-type plants. Plants overexpressed with PgTIP1 exhibited lower (relative to wild-type control) cold acclimation ability; however, this response was independent of cold-regulated gene expression. Our results demonstrate a significant function of PgTIP1 in growth and development of plant cells, and suggest that the water movement across tonoplast (via AQP) represents a rate-limiting factor for plant vigor under favorable growth conditions and also significantly affect responses of plant to drought, salt and cold stresses.     

Host-related variability in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal structures in roots of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hedera rhombea</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rubus parvifolius</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rosa multiflora</Emphasis> under controlled conditions

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) morphology of three host plant species inoculated with single and mixed fungal culture and the distribution of AM fungal species in roots of the hosts treated with a mixed culture of AM fungi were determined. The aim was to investigate the effect of host plants and AM fungi on AM morphology of coexisting plant species. Noncolonized rooted cuttings of Hedera rhombea (Miq) Bean, Rubus parvifolius L., and Rosa multiflora Thunb. were inoculated with five fungal species as single and mixed culture inocula. The fungal species used were Gigaspora rosea and Scutellospora erythropa, previously isolated from H. rhombea; Acaulospora longula and Glomus etunicatum from R. parvifolius; and Glomus claroideum from both plant species. A few hyphal and arbusculate coils were seen in the mixed culture-inoculated roots of R. parvifolius; all fungal treatments produced this Paris-type AM in H. rhombea and Arum-type AM in R. parvifolius, and R. multiflora indicates that AM morphology is strongly controlled by the identity of the host plants used in this study. AM fungal rDNA was extracted separately from roots of each replicate plant species inoculated with the mixed fungal culture, amplified, cloned, sequenced, and analyzed to determine the AM fungal species and their respective proportions in roots of each plant species. Glomus etunicatum and G. claroideum of the family Glomaceae generally occurred more frequently in R. parvifolius and R. multiflora, which form Arum-types, whereas S. erythropa, of the family Gigasporaceae, was the most frequently detected species in H. rhombea, which produced Paris-type AM. Although the genotype of the plant species used appears to determine the AM morphologies formed, there was preferential association between the hosts and AM fungal inoculants.     

Micropropagation of selected somaclones ofBegonia andSaintpaulia

Begonia x elatior plantlets which regenerated from leaf disk callus showed variations in plant morphology, number of flowers per plant, and flower size. Variations in flowering period, number of flowers per plant, and flower morphology were observed in Saintpaulia ionantha L. plants directly regenerated from leaf disk explants. The cytokinins, benzylaminopurine and zeatin, tested in the culture medium did not affect the basic plant characteristics including flower colour which remained stable in both species. Micropropagation of selected somaclones having the desirable trait of high number of flowers per plant was stable in the MV2 and MV3 generations.     

Phylogeny and floral hosts of a predominantly pollen generalist group of mason bees (Megachilidae: Osmiini)

Within the genus Osmia, the three subgenera Osmia, Monosmia, and Orientosmia form a closely‐related group of predominantly pollen generalist (‘polylectic’) mason bees. Despite the great scientific and economic interest in several species of this clade, which are promoted commercially for orchard pollination, their phylogenetic relationships remain poorly understood. We inferred the phylogeny of 21 Osmia species belonging to this clade by applying Bayesian and maximum likelihood methods based on five genes and morphology. Because our results revealed paraphyly of the largest subgenus (Osmia s.s.), we synonymized Monosmia and Orientosmia under Osmia s.s. Microscopical analysis of female pollen loads revealed that five species are specialized (‘oligolectic’) on Fabaceae or Boraginaceae, whereas the remaining species are polylectic, harvesting pollen from up to 19 plant families. Polylecty appears to be the ancestral state, with oligolectic lineages having evolved twice independently. Among the polylectic species, several intriguing patterns of host plant use were found, suggesting that host plant choice of these bees is constrained to different degrees and governed by flower morphology, pollen chemistry or nectar availability, thus supporting previous findings on predominantly oligolectic clades of bees. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 111 , 78–91.     

Knowledge and Use Value of Plant Species in a Rarámuri Community: A Gender Perspective for Conservation

We used a quantitative ethnobotanical approach to analyze factors influencing the use value of plant species among men and women of the Rarámuri people in Cuiteco, Chihuahua, Mexico. We constructed a use value index (UV) combining the use frequency (U) and the quality perception (Q) of useful plant species by local people. We identified all plant species used by the Rarámuri and classified them into 14 general use categories. We interviewed 34 households in the village to compare men and women’s knowledge on the five main general use categories (and on their respective subcategories and specific uses), to document how they practice gathering activities and to calculate scores of plants UV. A total of 226 useful plant species were identified, but only 12% of them had high UV scores for the 42 specific uses defined. When the overall knowledge of plant species was examined, no significant differences were detected between men and women, but significant differences were identified in general use categories such as medicinal plants, plants for construction and domestic goods, but not in plants used as food and firewood. We identified a division of labor in gathering activities associated with gender, with women mainly gathering medicinal and edible plants and being involved in preparing medicines and food, whereas men were primarily gathering and using plants for manufacturing domestic goods, firewood, and building materials. Plant species UV associated to gender were significantly different between men and women at the level of specific uses in the general category of domestic goods and building. Frequency of use is highly associated with plant species quality perception.