Molecular confirmation of a Trichophyton violaceum isolate from human black-dot ringworm

A clinical isolate from a black-dot ringworm lesion of a 28-year-old female Japanese was investigated by morphological and biochemical analyses as well as molecular analyses. The isolate grew well onthiamine enriched agar and did not produce violetpigment, macroconidia or microconidia on Sabouraud's dextrose agar. Approximately 620-bp genomic DNA fragments of the CHS1 gene were amplified from Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. tonsurans and T. violaceum by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. The chitin synthase 1 (CHS1) nucleotide sequences of the clinical isolate showed more than 97% similarity to that of T. violaceum and less than 96% similarity to that of T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum and T. tonsurans. The phylogenetic analysis of their sequences revealed that the clinical isolate was genetically close to T. violaceum and distinct from T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum and T. tonsurans. Therefore, the isolate was confirmed as T. violaceum by mycological examination and molecular analyses. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Review of dermatophytoses in Galicia from 1951 to 1987, and comparison with other areas of Spain

We have reviewed all the dermatophytoses diagnosed in Galicia during four consecutive 9-year periods 1951–86 and 1987. From 4571 patients, we isolated 3351 fungal strains belonging, in decreasing order of frequency, to the following dermatophyte species: Microsporum canis (25.5%), Trichophyton rubrum (24.6%), T. mentagrophytes (21.4%), Epidermophyton floccosum (11.8%), M. gypseum (5.2%), T. tonsurans (3.9%), T. verrucosum (3.1%), T. schoenleinii (2.5%), T. violaceum (1.2%), T. mengninii (0.3%), M. audouinii (0.2%), T. equinum (0.1%) and T. soudanense (0.1%). Tinea capitis has diminished in frequency since 1951, though there was been a slight increase since 1978; M. canis has always been the most common agent, and between 1951 and 1959 T. schoenleinii was also very frequent but is no longer found. The frequency of tinea corporis, on the other hand, has experienced a considerable increase. Its most common causal agents in the last few years have been T. mentagrophytes, M. canis and T. rubrum. Until 1977 the most common tinea cruris dermatophyte was E. floccosum, but since then it has been T. rubrum. The commonest tinea pedis dermatophytes have been T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes. Tinea unguium and tinea barbae have been the most frequent dermatophytoses, and their commonest causal agents T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes respectively. We have documented the distribution of the various causal agents by location of the lesions, age and source of the patients (private or National Health Service patients), and we have compared the results with those obtained in other regions of Spain.     

Epidemiology of Dermatophytes in Belgium: A 5 Years’ Survey

Dermatophytes are among the most common fungal agents causing superficial skin infections worldwide. Epidemiology of these infections is evolving and variable in every country. This report presents the Belgian epidemiological data regarding the distribution of dermatophytes species isolated by the two national reference centers for mycosis during a period of 5 years (2012–2016). Trichophyton rubrum was the most frequently isolated species, considering all sampling sites (60.3% on average between 2012 and 2016). More precisely, this dermatophyte was the major agent of Tinea unguium and Tinea corporis during this period, followed by species of the Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex. Moreover, Microsporum audouinii was the main etiological agent of Tinea capitis (TC) with a frequency of 52.5% on average between 2012 and 2016. Other African dermatophytes species such as Trichophyton soudanense and Trichophyton violaceum were also agents of TC with a respective prevalence of 11.6% and 11.5% on average. This study highlights a different dermatophyte distribution in Belgium in comparison with other European countries.

     

Phylogeny of the genera Trichophyton using mitochondrial DNA analysis

Diversity of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was investigated in 92 Trichophyton rubrum strains, 2 T. mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes, 2 T. m. vor. interdigitale, 2 T. m. var. goetzii, 1 T. m. var. erinacei, 2 T. quinckeanum, 2 T. schoenleinii, 1 T. tonsurans, 2 T. verrucosum var. album, 2 T. v. var. discoides, 1 T. violaceum var. violaceum, 1 Arthroderma benhamiae, and 1 A. vanbreuseghemii using endonucleases, Hae III, Msp I, Hind III, Xba I, and Bgl II. Trichophyton species were divided into 7 groups, and a phylogenetic tree was produced based on sequence divergence within mtDNA. The following results were obtained: (1) T. rubrum was divided into 2 groups Type I and Type II, and was suggested to be a complex. (2) A. benhamiae was closely related to T. m. var. erinacei. (3) T. rubrum Type II, T. tonsurans, and A. vanbreuseghemii showed identical restriction profiles, and were suggested to be closely related to each other or identical. (4) T. quinckeanum and T. schoenlenii showed identical restriction profiles, which differed slightly from those of A. vanbreuseghemii. (5) mtDNA analysis was useful in identifying pleomorphic strains.     

Incidence of dermatophytosis in Jordan with special reference to tinea capitis

Clinical data on 1068 cases of dermatophytosis as well as mycological data on 382 of these cases seen from March 1983 to September 1984 are reported. Tinea cruris was present in 34.1%, with Trichophyton rubrum and Epidermophyton floccosum isolated from 31% and 25% respectively. Tinea corporis was found in 17.9% of all patients of dermatophytosis with T. tonsurans responsible in 30.8%. Tinea pedis and Tinea unguium were present in 7.2% and 2% respectively, T. rubrum being the main causative agent; nail involvement was present in 27.3% of these cases. Tinea capitis was observed in 38.7% of 1068 dermatophytosis cases with T. violaceum and M. canis causing 48% and 32% of all T.C. cases respectively.The dermatophytic flora of the West Bank of Jordan apparently comprises about 14 dermatophytes, T. violaceum being the predominant agent of infection (in more than 34%). Other most common agents found in this survey were M. canis, T. rubrum, E. floccosum, T. schoenleini, T. tonsurans, and T. mentagrophytes.Formerly Assistant Professor at the Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Jordan, Amman     

Identification and characterization of parvalbumin-like protein in Trichophyton violaceum

Parvalbumins play crucial physiological roles in neuromuscular systems of vertebrates, such as cell-cycle, development of neurons, contraction of muscles, and regulation of intracellular calcium. To perform these neuromuscular functions, parvalbumin may be in associated with other proteins including calbindin, carbonic anhydrase, and cytochrome oxidase. Humans may show an IgE-specific hypersensitivity to parvalbumins after consumption of some distinct fish species. While this protein is abundant in fish muscles, literature review of publications related to fish parvalbumins, do not point to the presence of parvalbumins in eukaryotic microbes. In this study, we propose that distantly related parvalbumins may be found in some non-fish species. Bioinformatics studies such as multiple sequence alignment (MSA), phylogenetic analysis as well as molecular-based experiments indicate that, at least two parvalbumins sequences (UniProt IDs: A0A178F775 and A0A178F7E4) with EF-hand domains and Ca²⁺-binding sites could be identified in Trichophyton violaceum, a pathogenic fungal species.It was determined that both genes consisted of a single exon and encoded for parvalbumin proteins possessing conserved amino acid motifs. Antigenicity prediction revealed antigenic sites located in both sides of the Ca²⁺-binding site of the first EF-hand domain. Our phylogenetic analysis revealed that one of parvalbumins (UniProt ID: 0A178F775) can be evolved to other parvalbumins in T. violaceum (UniProt ID: A0A178F7E4) and fish species through evolutionary phenomenon. To confirm our in-silico findings, we designed three primer pairs to detect one of the T. violaceum parvalbumins (UniProt ID: A0A178F7E4) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR); one primer pair showed a strong and specific band in agarose gel electrophoresis. To evaluate the specificity of the method, the primers were tested on extracted DNA from Trichophyton rubrum and T. mentagrophytes. The results demonstrated that the evaluated parvalbumin gene (UniProt ID: A0A178F7E4) was T. violaceum-specific and this pathogenic fungus can be differentiated from T. rubrum and T. mentagrophytes through identification of parvalbumin genes. Further studies are necessary to unravel the biochemical and physiological functions of parvalbumins in T. violaceum.     

A survey of dermatophytes from human patients in the United States from 1985 to 1987

A survey of dermatophytes isolated from patients seeking medical advice was made from 1985 to 1987 in the United States. The survey included 54 locations with data from 45 cities and one state. Listing of the isolated dermatophytes and the frequency given by percentage of the total follows: Trichophyton rubrum 54.8%, T. tonsurans 31.3%, T. mentagrophytes 6.0%, Microsporum canis 4.0%, Epidermophyton floccosum 2.0%, M. gypseum 0.6%, and T. verrucosum 0.2%. Out of a total of 14,696 isolates M. audouinii was cultured 13 times, T. violaceum 12 times, M. nanum 6 times, T. terrestre 4 times, and T. soudanense twice. Single isolations were made of M.fulvum, M. ferrugineum and T. schoenleinii.Collection of dermatophyte data in Tucson, Arizona, began in 1966. In 1987, the first case of tinea capitis caused by T. tonsurans was observed. Other isolates of this organism as the cause of tinea capitis were made in this city during that year. These infections were in black children. With the recent growth of Tucson, the percentage of blacks in the population increased and this pathogen was introduced into the general population.     

Sur l'état actuel des dermatophytes en Roumanie

Summary The actual state of dermatophytes in Romania is briefly reviewed. From the 20 species discovered, up to now, 14 belonged to the group of human and animal origin, the other 6 to geophilic dermatophytes.The most frequently isolated wereT. mentagrophytes, (var.interdigitale),M. audouinii, T. violaceum andT. rubrum, which altogether caused more than 50 % of the human ringworm found in the last 15 years.WhileT. mentagrophytes still remains the agent no. 1 of tinea pedis in Romania andT. rubrum keeps the first place in the nail involvements by dermatophytes, the first organism of tinea capitis areM. audouinii andT. violaceum, the former causing mainly the epidemic foci. Such epidemics may also be due toT. ferrugineum. The number of cases byT. schönleinii is more and more reduced. The infections byT. verruccosum are increasing. The rarity of cases due toT. gallinae, toT. equinum and toT. mengninii are pointed out.From the so called geophilic dermatophytes,M. gypseum, K. ajelloi andChrysosporium keratinophilum are mostly isolated from the Romanian soil.T. terrestre, T. evolceanui, T. indicum andM. cookei are infrequently found. A few isolates ofT. mentagrophytes andT. quinckeanum were also discovered in the soil.     

Clinico-mycological Profile of Dermatophytosis in a Reference Centre for Leprosy and Dermatological Diseases in Addis Ababa

To assess the clinical and fungal species spectrum of dermatophyte infection in a reference centre in Addis Ababa, 539 dermatological patients with signs of dermatophytosis were investigated. Seventy-one percent were female and 29% male, aged 2–66 years (median 9). Four hundred-fifteen (77%) had at least one skin lesion. Tinea capitis was diagnosed in 138/155 males (89%) as compared to 214/384 females (40%) (p<0.05). T. capitis was diagnosed in 69% of the 374 children. Fingernails were affected in 132/145 (91%) of onychomycosis, 118 (90%) of these patients were females and 14 males (p<0.05). Tinea corporis was observed in 45, and other types of tinea in 12 patients. Thirty-six percent of all patients had also other skin lesions, mostly impetigo. Of 490 cultured samples 364 (74%) grew dermatophytes: Trichophyton violaceum in 84%, Trichophyton verrucosum in 9.6%, Trichophyton tonsurans in 1.4% and T. rubrum in 0.5%. Additionally, 15 isolates were identified as white variants of T. violaceum, in 3 cases confirmed by sequencing of the rDNA ITS 2 region. T. capitis in young males and T. unguium of fingernails in females were the most common manifestations of dermatophytosis in Addis Ababa, usually caused by T.violaceum.     

Dermatophytes isolated from patients in University Hospital,Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia

A total of 576 dermatophytes were isolated from patients with a variety of skin infections from January 1993 to May 2000. Ten species of dermatophytes were identified: Epidermophyton floccosum (0.7%), Microsporum audouinii (1.1%), M. canis (3.1%), M. gypseum (0.3%), Trichophyton concentricum(3.5%), T. equinum (0.2%), T. mentagrophytes (36.%), T . rubrum (53.8%), T. verrucosum (0.2) and T. violaceum (1.0%). The body sites most frequently affected by dermatophytes were the buttocks, nails and trunk. Anthropophilic dermatophytes made up 60.1% of the isolates; the most common species was T. rubrum, T. mentagrophytes and M. canis were the two main zoophilic dermatophytes. T. mentagrophytes was isolated from all body sites except the scalp. M. canis was found to be associated with domestic dogs and wasnot isolated from ethnic Malays. The only geophilic dermatophyte was M. gypseum, an uncommon dermatophyte associated with tinea pedis.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A critical survey of 1000 cases of dermatophytosis in the tel aviv area during 1970–1975

Clinical and mycological data on 1000 cases of dermatophytosis seen from 1970 to 1975 are reported. Tinea pedis was present in 44%, T. rubrum being the main causative agent; nail involvement was present in 41% of these cases. Tineainguinalis was present in 13%, 38% of them females, withT. rubrum isolated in 87% and the swimming-pool incriminated as the main source of contamination. There were various manifestations of tinea corporis in 128 patients, withT. rubrum responsible in 91%. Among the 21 cases of tinea capitis, there was one adult female with a kerion-type due toT. violaceum, 4 cases due toM. gypseum and 2 toM. canis. Tinea favosa was seen in 6 patients, all of them females and one with a spreading fungus on the soles and palms. Amonh the 10 cases with tinea barbae,T. rubrum was found in 4,T. tonsurans in 3,T. mentagrophytes in 2 andM. gypseum in one. There were widespread lesions ofT. rubrum located on large areas of the body and including the legs, arms, groins and nails, in 11 patients with other disorders, including diabetes, Cushing's syndrome and lymphoma.It was apparent that the dermatophytic flora of Israel comprises 10 dermatophytes,T. rubrum being the predominant agent of infection (in more than 80%), with a gradually increasing incidence evident. The other agents found in our survey wereT. mentagrophytes, T. violaceum, T. schoenleinii, T. tonsurans (found sporadically),E. floccosum andMicrosporum spp.M. canis andM. gypseum, the latter being reported for the first time in this country.T. verruccosum andT. megnini, mentioned in former publications, were not found in this survey.     

Tinea Capitis in Southeastern China: A 16-Year Survey

This survey was a retrospective of a 16-year (1993–2008) study on the incidence, clinical features, and etiological agents of tinea capitis mainly representing the Southeastern China. The diagnosis was confirmed by direct microscopic examination. Eight hundred and sixty-six patients with tinea capitis, 381 males (44%) and 485 females (56%), were enrolled in this study. Patients were between 20 days and 84 years old with an average of 10.5 years and the peak incidence was in the age group of 6–10 (48.5%). Five hundred and sixty-two patients (64.9%) were ectothrix and 303 patients (35.0%) were endothrix with only one patient was favus. The incidence of tinea capitis from 1993 was gradually increasing and reaching to its peak in 2001. Positive cultures of dermatophytes were obtained in 715 patients: Microsporum canis (62.4%) was predominant, followed by Trichophyton violaceum (19.0%), Trichophyton tousurans (9.8%). M. canis was the major pathogen for ectothrix infection, while T. violaceum and T. tousurans contributed to the most endothrix form. M. canis, T. violaceum, and T. rubrum were the major pathogens for kerion.     

Les mycoses superficielles en zone forestière gabonaise: bilan des champignons isolés

Résumé Les auteurs, effectuant une rétrospective de 2 années d'activité en mycologie à Libreville (Gabon), exposent et analysent l'ensemble des résultats positifs obtenus à partir des teignes et épidermomycoses qu'ils ont eu l'occasion d'observer. Signalant simplement l'existence du Pityriasis versicolor, ils replacent les agents des différentes mycoses selon leur importance respective.Ce premier inventaire des dermatophytes au Gabon, (13 espèces au total) en zone forestière humide et chaude, montre la nette prédominance de Microsporum langeroni, Trichophyton soudanense, Trichophyton rubrum, Epidermophyton floccosum. Trichophyton violaceum est isolé dans une proportion non négligeable de cas. D'autres espèces, plus rares, sont mentionnées.

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The authors draw up an inventory of the dermatophytes in Gabon (13 species isolated from 593 people in the wet and hot forest). They show the clear prevalence of Microsporum langeroni, Trichophyton soudanense, Trichophyton rubrum, and Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton violaceum also is fairly often isolated.More infrequently, they find T. mentagrophytes, T. mentagrophytes var. interdigitale, T. gourvili, M. canis, M. audouini, T. yaoundei, M. gypseum.

     

In vitro hair cultures for differentiating between atypical isolates ofTrichophyton mentagrophytes andTrichophyton rubrum

Summary Isolates ofT. mentagrophytes andT. rubrum are encountered that cannot be distinguished from each other solely on the basis of morphological criteria.Since these two species fundamentally differ in the manner in which they attack hairin vitro, this property can be used as a diagnostic aid, when correlated with their morphologic characteristics as developed on a variety of media. T. mentagrophytes radially penetrates hair segments immersed in water forming wedge-shaped perforations.T. rubrum does not perforate hair.The method of determining the ability or inability ofT. mentagrophytes orT. rubrum to perforate hair and the use of this test in identifying those species are described.     

Forty four years of dermatophytes in a Chicago clinic (1944–1988)

Data are presented on 39270 cultures taken over a 44 year span (1944–1988) at the University of Chicago's Dermatology Clinic. In the mid 1940's Microsporum audouinii accounted for 60–80% of isolates. It gradually decreased over the next two decades and disappeared altogether in the 1970's. Trichophyton rubrum, rare in the 1940's accounted for over 60% of isolates in the mid-1960's only to be overtaken by T. tonsurans. This species, not isolated till the mid 1950's, became and remains the dominant dermatophyte at the present time. Both T. mentagrophytes and Epidermophyton floccosum increased in the 1970's and decreased later. Unusual circumstances resulted in clusters of T. verrucosum, T. terrestre, and T. schoenleinii isolates. Infections were associated with rural dairy workers, zoo handlers and immigrant families respectively. M. canis and M. gypseum were steady at a low rate throughout the entire period. Rare isolates included M. cookei, M. persicolor, M. racemosum, T. simii, T. soudanense, T. violaceum, and the soil keratinophile, Aphanoascus fulvescens.     

The Changing Face of Dermatophytic Infections Worldwide

Dermatophytes evolve along with the geography and socioeconomic conditions. Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum audouinii and Trichophyton schoenleinii acted as the major pathogens of superficial fungal diseases 100 years ago, but their frequency decreased dramatically since the middle of the twentieth century and they are limited to some less-developed countries nowadays; meanwhile, frequency of Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Trichophyton tonsurans and Microsporum canis increased gradually, and these fungi have become the major species globally. Some other dermatophytes, i.e., Trichophyton violaceum, Trichophyton verrucosum and Microsporum ferrugineum, are mainly endemic in some parts of Africa, Asia and Europe. At present, T. rubrum is the leading pathogen for skin and nail fungal infections, whereas M. canis, T. tonsurans and T. violaceum present as the predominant dermatophytes involved in tinea capitis. Population mobility, changes in human lifestyle and advents of antifungal drugs will continually drive the dermatophyte evolution in the skin microenvironment. Comprehensive observation is needed to better understand this kind of organisms and prospect the trends of their changes in future.     

Dermatophytes in Portugal (1972–1981)

For the years 1972–1981, 7 333 isolates of dermatophytes belonging to 14 species were obtained from glabrous skin (32%), feet (28%), groin (19%), scalp (8%), toenails (7%), fingernails (3%) and beard (1%)., T. rubrum represented 50% of all the isolates and was the most frequent species on glabrous skin, groin and nails. T. mentagrophytes (24%) was mainly obtained from the feet, E. floccosum (9%) from the groin and T. megninii (4%) from uncovered areas of the skin, fingernail and beard. These 4 species predominated in men. M. canis was the commonest agent on the scalp and in children up to 11 years. T. violaceum, previously the main cause of tinea capitis, and T. tonsurans have been decreasing for the period of this study, just as T. schoenleinii for the years 1962–71.The rising prevalence of T. rubrum was observed since 1962. In the whole it seems stable after 1969, but the analysis of the main sites involved shows that in the glabrous skin this species increased from 1962 to 1974; in the groin it was gone up from 30% during 1962–1965, to 64% in the years 1969–1971; in the feet the evolution was slower and only in 1980 T. rubrum became more frequent than T. mentagrophytes.The increase in certain species, whereas others become rare, lacks a satisfactory explanation.

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Résumé Depuis 1972 jusqu'à 1981, 7 333 isolements de dermatophytes concernant 14 espèces ont été obtenus de la peau glabre (32%), des pieds (28%), des plis inguinaux (19%), des ongles des orteils (7%), des ongles des mains (3%) et de la barde (1%). T. rubrum a réprésenté 50% de tous les isolements, étant l'espèce la plus fréquente dans la peau glabre, aux plis inguinaux et dans les ongles. T. mentagrophytes (24%) a été isolé surtout des pieds; E.floccosum (9%) des plis inguinaux; et T. megninii (4%) des régions découvertes de la peau, des ongles de la main et de la barbe. Ces 4 espèces ont prédominé chez des adultes du sexe masculin. M. canis a été l'agent le plus commun dans le cuir chevelu et chez des enfants jusqu'à 11 ans. T. violaceum (auparavant la cause principale des teignes du cuir chevelu) et T. tonsurans sont devenus beaucoup moins fréquents pendant cette étude, comme d'ailleurs T. schoenleinii était devenu rare au cours d'une enquête anterieur (1962–1971).La prévalence de T. rubrum s'est beaucoup elevée dès 1962. Dans l'ensemble, elle parait stabilisée depuis 1969, mais l'analyse des principales localisations de la maladie démontre que dans la peau glabre cette espèce a augmenté depuis 1962 jusqu'à 1974; aux plis inguinaux elle a changé de 30% en 1962–1965 pour 64% en 1969–1971; aux pieds l'évolution a été moins rapide et seulement dès 1980 T. rubrum est devenu plus fréquent que T. mentagrophytes.L'augmentation de certaines espèces tandis que d'autres deviennent rares n'a pas trouvée une interpretation satisfaisante.

     

A survey of dermatophytes isolated from human patients in the United States from 1982 to 1984

A survey of dermatophytes isolated from patients seeking medical advice was made from 1982 to 1984 in the United States. The survey included 59 locations with data from 49 cities and one state. Listing of the isolated dermatophytes and the frequency given by percentage of total follows: Trichophyton rubrum 46.8%, T. tonsurans 33.3%, T. mentagrophytes 10.1%, Microsporum canis 4.5%, Epidermophyton floccosum 3,5%, M. gypseum and T. verrucosum both 0.7%, M. audouinii and T. terrestre both 0.1%, and T. violaceum 0.06%. No isolations of M. ferrugineum or T. schoenleinii were reported.Temporal increases were observed for frequencies of T. mentagrophytes, T. tonsurans and M. canis, and decreases occurred for frequencies of E. floccosum and T. rubrum when the data from this survey were compared by the goodness of fit test to data of the 1979 to 1981 survey. The percent of dermatophyte isolations identified as T. tonsurans correlated significantly with the percentage of blacks in cities of 100000 or more people.     

MALDI-TOF MS of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma</Emphasis>: a model system for the identification of microfungi

This investigation aimed to assess whether MALDI-TOF MS analysis of the proteome could be applied to the study of Trichoderma, a fungal genus selected because it includes many species and is phylogenetically well defined. We also investigated whether MALDI-TOF MS analysis of peptide mass fingerprints would reveal apomorphies that could be useful in diagnosing species in this genus. One hundred and twenty nine morphologically and genetically well-characterized strains of Hypocrea and Trichoderma, belonging to 25 species in 8 phylogenetic clades, were analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS mass spectrometry. The resulting peak lists of individual samples were submitted to single-linkage cluster analysis to produce a taxonomic tree and were compared to ITS and tef1 sequences from GenBank. SuperSpectra™ for the 13 most relevant species of Trichoderma were computed. The results confirmed roughly previously defined clades and sections. With the exceptions of T. saturnisporum (Longibrachiatum Clade) and T. harzianum (Harzianum Clade), strains of individual species clustered very closely. T. polysporum clustered distantly from all other groups. The MALDI-TOF MS analysis accurately reflected the phylogenetic classification reported in recent publications, and, in most cases, strains identified by DNA sequence analysis clustered together by MALDI-TOF MS. The resolution of MALDI-TOF MS, as performed here, was roughly equivalent to ITS rDNA. The MALDI-TOF MS technique analyzes peptides and represents a rough equivalent to sequencing, making this method a useful adjunct for determination of species limits. It also allows simple, reliable, and quick species identification, thus representing a valid alternative to gene sequencing for species diagnosis of Trichoderma and other fungal taxa.     

Antifungal activity of lichen compounds against dermatophytes: a review

The growth rate inhibition of dermatophytes by compounds extracted by acetone, ethanol, methanol and water derived from representatives of several lichen genera (e.g. Caloplaca, Everniastrum, Heterodermia, Hypotrachyna, Platismatia and Ramalina) were compared on the basis of a worldwide review of published research. The examined dermatophytes included Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum audouinii, M. canis, M. gypseum, M. nanum, Trichophyton longifusus, T. mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. tonsurans and T. violaceum. The influence of selected secondary lichen compounds, for example, usnic acid, on the growth rates of these dermatophytes was also reviewed. The measurement of inhibition by lichen compounds was performed by several methods, but mostly those employing disc diffusion, broth dilution and agar dilution. The fungicidal activity of water-extracted compounds from Heterodermia leucomela and Hypotrachyna cirrhata and of methanol-extracted compounds from Evernia divaricata and Ramalina pollinaria, as well as protolichesterinic and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-3,6-dimethylbenzoic acids, are distinguished.