Red, distasteful water mites: did fish make them that way?

Water mites (Acari: Hydrachnida) are unusual among the typically cryptic freshwater fauna in that many species are brightly colored red or orange, and also appear to be distasteful to fish. This apparent aposematism (use of color to warn predators) has been previously explained as the evolutionary end-product of pressure from fish predation. The fish-predation argument has been supported by observations that fish spit out red mites, powder made from red water mites is more distasteful to fish than powder made from non-red mites, and red mites appear to be more abundant than non-red mites in water bodies where fish are present. In this paper, we challenge the hypothesis that fish were the sole driving force behind the evolution of aposematism in water mites. We show that non-red mites actually dominate in water bodies with fish, and that red mites are more abundant in temporary, fishless water bodies. We also demonstrate that powder made from red, terrestrial velvet mites (Trombidiidae) was as distasteful to fish as powder made from red water mites. We suggest that the main role of red and orange carotenoid pigments may be to act as photoprotectants, and hypothesize that redness originated in the terrestrial ancestors of water mites and has been retained in certain lineages of water mites after the invasion of the aquatic habitat. We also suggest that distastefulness evolved subsequent to bright coloration in response to increased conspicuousness to predators. Relaxed selection for redness has occurred when adults and/or larvae are less exposed to sunlight, either through occupying more protected habitats, parasitizing more nocturnal hosts, or parasitizing hosts for a short period of time. Our ability to test this alternative hypothesis is hampered by lack of knowledge of the source and mode of action of distastefulness, and of phylogenetic relationships among the Parasitengona.     

Red, distasteful water mites: did fish make them that way?

Water mites (Acari: Hydrachnida) are unusual among the typically cryptic freshwater fauna in that many species are brightly colored red or orange, and also appear to be distasteful to fish. This apparent aposematism (use of color to warn predators) has been previously explained as the evolutionary end-product of pressure from fish predation. The fish-predation argument has been supported by observations that fish spit out red mites, powder made from red water mites is more distasteful to fish than powder made from non-red mites, and red mites appear to be more abundant than non-red mites in water bodies where fish are present. In this paper, we challenge the hypothesis that fish were the sole driving force behind the evolution of aposematism in water mites. We show that non-red mites actually dominate in water bodies with fish, and that red mites are more abundant in temporary, fishless water bodies. We also demonstrate that powder made from red, terrestrial velvet mites (Trombidiidae) was as distasteful to fish as powder made from red water mites. We suggest that the main role of red and orange carotenoid pigments may be to act as photoprotectants, and hypothesize that redness originated in the terrestrial ancestors of water mites and has been retained in certain lineages of water mites after the invasion of the aquatic habitat. We also suggest that distastefulness evolved subsequent to bright coloration in response to increased conspicuousness to predators. Relaxed selection for redness has occurred when adults and/or larvae are less exposed to sunlight, either through occupying more protected habitats, parasitizing more nocturnal hosts, or parasitizing hosts for a short period of time. Our ability to test this alternative hypothesis is hampered by lack of knowledge of the source and mode of action of distastefulness, and of phylogenetic relationships among the Parasitengona.     

"Bactericidal" property of seawater: death or debilitation?

Coliform colony-forming units in sewage-contaminated seawater were observed to decrease rapidly with time in water that was collected from St. John's Harbour, Newfoundland, and isolated in dialysis bags; this confirms observations made in warmer climates. Adenosine 5'-triphosphate biomass, however, did not decline, nor did the particle size distribution of radioactively labeled coliforms change. It was observed that the coliforms were not killed by seawater but were debilitated to the extent that they would not form colonies on selective media. However, they recovered and grew on nutrient agar made with seawater. The adenosine 5'-triphosphate content per cell apparently did not decline during debilitation.     

滇西北鹤庆草海湿地紫水鸡生态适应的初步观察

中国南方紫水鸡(Porphyrio porphyrio)在快速扩散,探究其生态适应十分必要。2014年3月至2015年8月在云南鹤庆草海湿地的观察,得到以下结果。紫水鸡集中分布在以开阔水域为主并有足够植被覆盖的西草海,很少见于附近干扰频繁的其他湿地,其适宜的生境开阔水域约占49.6%、水生植被覆盖水面占39.3%、陆地占11.1%;紫水鸡早间(7:00~9:00时)频繁活动在开阔水域、高草丛、岸边草地,中午后逐渐远离岸边而藏掖草丛中;白天活动的紫水鸡集群大小在1~7只之间,1~2只的集群占62.0%,大的集群中常有司职警戒、领头的个体;紫水鸡用于觅食、休息、警戒的时间分别占47.8%、23.5%、15.1%,很少互动交流,但常驱赶靠近的其他鸟类以维护个体自身的"领域";紫水鸡应对干扰威胁的警戒、避让、惊飞平均距离分别是26.4 m、20.5 m和17.6 m。在鹤庆的紫水鸡集中分布于西草海湿地并避让人为干扰,说明其以避让和逃逸方式应对人为干扰和生境胁迫,应该考虑立法给予重点保护。     

Vessel contents during transpiration - embolisms and refilling

A test was made of the previous unexpected observation that embolized vessels were refilled during active transpiration. The contents of individual vessels in petioles of sunflower plants were examined, after snap-freezing at 2-h intervals during a day's transpiration, in the cryo-scanning electron microscope, and assessed for the presence of liquid or gas (embolism) contents. Concurrent measurements were made of irradiance, leaf temperature, transpiration rate, and leaf water potential (by pressure chamber). Up to 40% of the vessels were already embolized by 0900 (transpiration rate ~5 _g_cm-2_s-1, water potential about -300 J/kg), and the proportion declined to a minimum (as low as 4%) at 1500. This was the time of highest transpiration rate (~25 _g_cm-2_s-1) and most negative water potential (-600 to -700 J/kg). Images of vessels with mixed gas and liquid contents showed water being extruded through pits in the walls of the vessels to refill them. The data indicate that: (1) the water columns are weak and break under quite small tensions; (2) embolisms are repaired by refilling the vessels with water on a short time scale (minutes) throughout the day; (3) the vigor of this refilling process is adjusted by the plant on a longer time scale (hours) to the intensity of the water stress; (4) the pressure chamber balance pressure (P) does not measure tension in the vessels; (5) P is also not a measure of water stress (as measured by vessel embolization); and (6) P is a measure of the plant's response to water stress, i.e., a measure of the vigor of the refilling process. The test confirms the previous observations and negates all the assumptions and evidences of the Cohesion Theory. The data are fully consistent with the Compensating Pressure Theory, which predicted the relations demonstrated in this experiment. Using the assumptions of that theory it is easy to outline a simple mechanism by which the refilling of vessels might be achieved by reverse osmosis, and the adjustment in (3) might be achieved by osmoregulation in the starch sheath.     

THE PELAGIC DISTRIBUTION OF SEA-BIRDS IN THE WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN

The present paper summarises observations made during the International Indian Ocean Expedition on board the R.R.S.' Discovery, from August to November 1963 and from February to September 1964 in the Indian Ocean north of 20° S and west of 70° E. In 1963 work was carried out in the Somali Basin. In 1964 a series of transects were made over the ocean, the main purpose of which was to investigate the system of equatorial currents and the changes in the sea associated with the onset of the Southwest Monsoon in May. The Tropical Indian Ocean is briefly described. Except for local concentrations, the surface layers are poor in nutrient salts and plankton. There is a seasonal reversal of winds and surface currents in the Arabian Sea, but seasonal changes become less marked further south. Previous ornithological observations in the western Indian Ocean are mostly confined to the Arabian Sea or to the island groups. Thus, existing information on the pelagic range of pantropical species is incomplete. Observations made on each transect across the Indian Ocean in 1964 are summarised and compared with oceanographic data collected at the same time. General conclusions are not possible on the basis of so little information, though there appeared to be some relationship between the distribution of certain species and wind or current belts. The only marked discontinuity recorded was a concentration of Puffinus pacificus and Gygis alba at the northern edge of the Equatorial Counter-current at 58° E in March. Observations made on transects that were repeated before and after the onset of the Southwest Monsoon suggested that Sterna fuscata concentrates in the equatorial region as the monsoon develops. In general, both plankton and sea-birds were more abundant at 58° E than at 67¹/₄° E. An analysis of the presence or absence of sea-birds during each observation period, which lasted an average of one hour, established the difference between pelagic species and those largely restricted to within 50 miles of their breeding stations. There was no evidence of any correlation with zooplankton abundance, though birds of all species taken together were commonest where flying-fish were most abundant and S. fuscata appeared to be commonest in cool-water areas with strong winds, i.e. the Trade-wind belts. It was not possible to sample the food organisms of sea-birds quantitatively. Sea-bird observations in the Indian Ocean more than 200 miles from the continental coasts are summarized and compared with previous observations. The little information collected in the Indian Ocean agrees with previous work in the Pacific Ocean, where sea-birds are commonest in areas of convergence, and not where local upwelling and an associated concentration of plankton occur, such as on the equator. This may be due to the fact that populations of organisms on which sea-birds feed develop or concentrate a considerable time after upwelling of nutrient-rich water occurs. Since few sea-birds were seen feeding, it seems likely that available food is scarce and that much time is required to locate areas where it is abundant. Finally, evidence is presented to indicate how some sea-bird species may avoid or reduce competition by feeding at different distances offshore, or in different geographical areas.     

A simplified model to predict diurnal water temperature dynamics in a shallow tropical water pool

Water temperature is a critical regulator in the growth and development of malaria mosquito immatures, as they are poikilothermic. Measuring or estimating the diurnal temperature ranges to which these immatures are exposed is of the utmost importance, as these immatures will develop into adults that can transmit malaria. Recent attempts to predict the daily water temperature dynamics in mosquito breeding sites in Kenya have been successful. However, the developed model may be too complex, as the sophisticated equipment that was used for detailed meteorological observations is not widely distributed in Africa, making it difficult to predict the daily water temperature dynamics on a local scale. Therefore, we compared two energy budget models with earlier made observations of the daily water temperature dynamics in a small, shallow and clear water pool (diameter 0.96 m, depth 0.32 m) in Kenya. This paper describes (1) a complex 1-Dimensional model, and (2) a simplified second model, and (3) shows that both models mimic the water temperature dynamics in the water pool accurately. The latter model has the advantage that it only needs common weather data (air temperature, air humidity, wind speed and cloud cover) to estimate the diurnal temperature dynamics in breeding sites of African malaria mosquitoes.     

Long-Term Citizen-Collected Data Reveal Geographical Patterns and Temporal Trends in Lake Water Clarity

We compiled a lake-water clarity database using publically available, citizen volunteer observations made between 1938 and 2012 across eight states in the Upper Midwest, USA. Our objectives were to determine (1) whether temporal trends in lake-water clarity existed across this large geographic area and (2) whether trends were related to the lake-specific characteristics of latitude, lake size, or time period the lake was monitored. Our database consisted of >140,000 individual Secchi observations from 3,251 lakes that we summarized per lake-year, resulting in 21,020 summer averages. Using Bayesian hierarchical modeling, we found approximately a 1% per year increase in water clarity (quantified as Secchi depth) for the entire population of lakes. On an individual lake basis, 7% of lakes showed increased water clarity and 4% showed decreased clarity. Trend direction and strength were related to latitude and median sample date. Lakes in the southern part of our study-region had lower average annual summer water clarity, more negative long-term trends, and greater inter-annual variability in water clarity compared to northern lakes. Increasing trends were strongest for lakes with median sample dates earlier in the period of record (1938–2012). Our ability to identify specific mechanisms for these trends is currently hampered by the lack of a large, multi-thematic database of variables that drive water clarity (e.g., climate, land use/cover). Our results demonstrate, however, that citizen science can provide the critical monitoring data needed to address environmental questions at large spatial and long temporal scales. Collaborations among citizens, research scientists, and government agencies may be important for developing the data sources and analytical tools necessary to move toward an understanding of the factors influencing macro-scale patterns such as those shown here for lake water clarity.     

Effect of low dose rate radiation on cell growth kinetics.

Experimental determinations were made of cell number as a function of time for two strains of L5178Y mammalian cells maintained continuously in various environments of radiation. One strain possessed a shoulder in its dose response curve whereas the other did not. Neither strain showed any significant difference in growth rate for interdivision doses on the order of the median lethal dose or less delivered continuously at a low dose rate or pulsed every 4 h at a high instantaneous dose rate. It was also shown that large numbers of dead cells have little effect on growth rate and that these dead cells last as discrete entities for many days. A simple theory of growth rate in the presence of radiation is presented, and the agreement with the observations implies that there is no effect of any sublethal low dose rate radiation received in one generation on the growth rate or radiation sensitivity of the succeeding generation. Further analysis of the data also showed that for the no-shoulder cells at 37 degrees C, tritiated water had a relative biological effect close to unity for cell sterilization.     

THE SEA-BIRDS OF GOUGH ISLAND

Between November 1955 and May 1956 continuous observations were made on the sea-birds of Gough Island. These have been augmented by further occasional observations during seven subsequent years, and are compared with all previous published records for the island.
A check-list of 30 species of sea-birds has been compiled and substantiated, as far as possible, by a series of skins of 20 species.
Nearly 900 sea-birds cf 20 species were caught and measured, considerably more than at any previous time there; in the case of eight species, these are analysed in detail and some are compared with those from other populations.
The relative status of each species was estimated, together with total breeding populations where possible. In same cases the distribution of nests was mapped.
A detailed sound and photographic record, of 14 and 16 species respectively, was made.
Numbers of Wandering Albatrosses Diomedea exulans dabbenena and skuas Catharacta skua hamiltoni were ringed and colour-marked respectively to enable a more detailed study to be made of them.
General observations were made on the nesting seasons, breeding behaviour and moult of various species which are treated systematically.     

Quantitative fluorescence correlation spectroscopy reveals a 1000-fold increase in lifetime of protein functionality

We have investigated dilute protein solutions with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and have observed that a rapid loss of proteins occurs from solution. It is commonly assumed that such a loss is the result of protein adsorption to interfaces. A protocol was developed in which this mode of protein loss can be prevented. However, FCS on fluorescent protein (enhanced green fluorescent protein, mCherry, and mStrawberry) solutions enclosed by adsorption-protected interfaces still reveals a decrease of the fluorescent protein concentration, while the diffusion time is stable over long periods of time. We interpret this decay as a loss of protein functionality, probably caused by denaturation of the fluorescent proteins. We show that the typical lifetime of protein functionality in highly dilute, approximately single molecule per femtoliter solutions can be extended more than 1000-fold (typically from a few hours to >40 days) by adding compounds with surfactant behavior. No direct interactions between the surfactant and the fluorescent proteins were observed from the diffusion time measured by FCS. A critical surfactant concentration of more than 23 μM was required to achieve the desired protein stabilization for Triton X-100. The surfactant does not interfere with DNA-protein binding, because similar observations were made using DNA-cutting restriction enzymes. We associate the occurrence of denaturation of proteins with the activity of water at the water-protein interface, which was recently proposed in terms of the “water attack model”. Our observations suggest that soluble biomolecules can extend an influence over much larger distances than suggested by their actual volume.     

Selective decoration of hydrophilic moieties of membrane molecules in freeze fracture

Selective decoration of the hydrophilic moieties of phospholipid molecules on freeze fractured bilayer faces was made using residue water vapor in an oil-free vacuum unit. The preferential decoration technique was applied to label structural faults of bilayers, such as domain boundaries and other regions of molecular dislocation which are not visible by conventional morphological observations.     

Selective decoration of hydrophilic moieties of membrane molecules in freeze fracture

Selective decoration of the hydrophilic moieties of phospholipid molecules on freeze fractured bilayer faces was made using residue water vapor in an oil-free vacuum unit. The preferential decoration technique was applied to label structural faults of bilayers, such as domain boundaries and other regions of molecular dislocation which are not visible by conventional morphological observations.     

REJUVENATION OF MELOSIRA GRANULATA (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) RESTING CELLS FROM THE ANOXIC SEDIMENTS OF DOUGLAS LAKE,MICHIGAN. I. LIGHT MIGROSCOPY AND 14C UPTAKE 1

Resting cells of Melosira granulate (Ehr.) Ralfs were collected from the anoxic sediments of Douglas Lake, Michigan. Sediment containing M. granulata was inoculated into distilled water and incubated in a growth chamber for one week during which observations were made on the cytological differentiation process. Cells classified as “condensed,” i.e. containing a dark brown cytoplasmic mass were identified as resting cells. The differentiation process consisted of a series of gradual cytological changes that included elongation of the cytoplasmic mass and recognition of definable organelles to the point where the cells were non-distinguishable from water column vegetative cells. Differentiating cells accumulated large polyphosphate and lipid granules. However, these granules disappeared just prior to cell division. The complete differentiation or rejuvenation sequence occurred in some cells in less than 24 h. However, not all dormant cells rejuvenated at the same time and it was observed that the lag period for rejuvenation increased with resting cell age (depth of burial in sediments). In the ¹⁴C uptake studies, label was initially observed in condensed state cells. The label gradually progressed to the more differentiated forms. Total carbon uptake during the rejuvenation process was initially lower in the rejuvenating cells, but roughly equal to water column populations after 8 h, indicating a period of high metabolic activity in the rejuvenating cells between 1 and 8 h.     

Dielectric Properties of Water-liquid Paraffin Emulsion Systems at the Microwave Frequency of 9.4 GHz

The state of water contained in emulsions, particularly in o/w emulsions, was studied as a model of water orientation at the peripheries of biomembranes. Dielectric measurements made at microwave frequency on emulsions containing water and liquid paraffin in various ratios with emulsifiers revealed that the o/w emulsions possessed considerably reduced dielectric loss as compared with theoretical values obtained in accordance with the Maxwell-Wagner model, while the dielectric properties of w/o emulsion were in good agreement with the theoretically expected values. The observations seem to be explained by assuming changes in the state of water in the oil-water interfacial layer in o/w emulsions. The preparation of stable emulsions for use in this study is also discussed.     

The ecology and behaviour of a marine insect, Halobates fijiensis (Hemiptera: Gerridae)

Observations were made in Fiji on the adaptive strategies of a marine gerrid, Halobates fijiensis , a species of the only genus of insects to have successfully colonized the open sea. The immature stages spend most of their time in flotillas on sheltered water close to mangroves, whereas adults usually occur singly and on both sheltered and open water behind the protecting reef systems. Wind has a decisive influence on the distribution of H. fijiensis: in strong onshore winds, all stages, including adults, remain close to the shelter of mangroves, but in calm conditions, older immatures venture considerable distances from the mangroves. Halobates fijiensis feed on floating, dead insects. Adults of the chironomid fly Tanytarsus halophilae , whose larvae live on intertidal sea-grasses, accounted for over 60% of the prey items recorded. Halobates fijiensis feeds at around the time of high water, either as individuals or in small, well-dispersed groups. Eggs are laid on intertidal turtle grass (Syringodium) , green coralline algae (Halimeda) or occasionally coral rubble, at or shortly after the point of low water on days of extreme low spring tides. Halobates fijiensis is preyed upon by the robber-fly Clinopogon scalaris (Diptera: Asilidae). Field observations showed that there is a clear effect of group size on the distance at which an approaching predator model is detected.     

Predictive water loss curves for ram spermatozoa during cryopreservation: comparison with experimental observations.

Calculated curves predicting intracellular water loss during cryopreservation at different cooling rates were calculated from published equations. To compute these curves, basic cell parameters specific to ram spermatozoa were measured, i.e., the total surface area (139 microns2), the hydraulic conductivity (0.222 micron3/micron2.atm-1.min-1), and its temperature dependence (0.045/degree C). Cell surface area was derived from measurements of physical dimensions. Hydraulic conductivity was calculated from measurements of the critical medium hypotonicity on exposure of sperm to various hypotonic solutions and the time taken for membrane rupture in sperm exposed to distilled water (spermolysis time). The temperature dependence of the water permeability was derived from measurements of spermolysis time at various temperatures above zero. Several discrepancies were noted between the resulting calculated curves and experimental observations made on the effects of cooling rate on sperm cell survival. These could be due to errors in the estimates of the basic parameters, or to false assumptions in the basic equations used to compute the curves, e.g., the validity of the Boyle-van't Hoff relationship. Nevertheless, this study represents a first attempt to predict intracellular water loss from ram sperm during cooling and may provide a novel approach for the interpretation of the many empirical studies carried out to investigate optimal conditions for the cryopreservation of sperm.     

Disintegration of a large concentration of loliginid squid as a response to predation

During hydroacoustic observations in November 2002, a large concentration of chokka squid (Loligo reynaudi) was monitored for three days during fairly constant wind speed and direction, that marginally improved during the period of observations. During this period, the concentration (estimated biomass 48 t) disintegrated into small, separate aggregations. Most often, such dispersal is weather-related, but obviously not in this case. Instead, a bottom trawl made adjacent to the concentration, as well as underwater camera observations revealed an unusually large number of predators, mostly bronze whaler sharks (Carcharhinus brachyurus). Most whaler sharks caught in the trawl had chokka in their stomachs. Therefore, one explanation for the break-up of this squid concentration was the unusual predator activity. Video observations revealed, that these attacks occurred on the bottom where squid spawn; while none were observed in the water column where squid pair, mate and swim in a circular motion preparing for descent to the egg bed. The disintegration of the whole concentration suggested that disrupted spawning affects the upper part of the typical mushroom-shaped structure as well, and squid subsequently disperse and/or move away as a result of predation by whaler sharks.     

Effect of air temperature and humidity on ingestive behaviour of sheep

Thirty-two Polwarth ewes, of ages up to 1 year, were observed in a climatic chamber (24 to 45° C) for eight periods of 5 h each. The observations were made through a window in the chamber wall. All animals were observed four times, then shorn and observed four times again. The animals were given weighed quantities of water and feed consisting of commercial concentrate plus Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) hay. The water and feed remaining after 5 h of observation were weighed. The following traits were analysed: time eating hay (TEH), time eating concentrate (TEC), time drinking water (TDW), weight of hay eaten (WHE), weight of concentrate eaten (WCE), volume of ingested water (VIW), ruminating time standing up (RTS), ruminating time lying down (RTL), idling time standing up (ITS), and idling time lying down (ITL). Shearing had a significant effect for all traits except ITS. Shearing resulted in higher values for all traits except for ITS and ITL. Ingestion of hay (TEH and WHE) decreased with increased air temperature and humidity, while the ingestion of concentrate (TEC) and WHE) and water (TDW and VIW) increased. Rumination decreased with increased air temperature and humidity, and was higher in shorn than in unshorn sheep.     

Water movement from intracristal spaces in isolated liver mitochondria

When analyzing mitochondria isolated in a sucrose medium that had been embedded for thin sectioning according to one low denaturation embedding technique, large intracristal spaces were present in close to 90% of the mitochondria. The two crista membranes were closely apposed in only 40% of all cristae. When the mitochondria were transferred to an incubation medium, the percentage of mitochondria with intracristal spaces was reduced to 40%. About 90% of all cristae were lacking any space separating the two crista membranes. The presence of inorganic phosphate in the medium was required for the closing of the intracristal spaces. The percentage of cristae lacking an intracristal space remained the same after addition of substrate for respiration (state 4) and of ADP (state 3). Inhibition or uncoupling of respiration led to an increase in the percentage of intracristal spaces, showing that oxidative phosphorylation is required to maintain the crista membranes closely apposed. The appearance and disappearance of the intracristal spaces was an indication of water movements across the crista membranes. The mean volume of the mitochondria increased 33% when they were transferred from the sucrose medium to the incubation medium, showing that the removal of water from the cristae was not caused by a passive osmotic effect. Addition of substrate made the volume decrease by 28%. After further addition of ADP, the volume decreased another 23%. No change in volume was associated with inhibition or uncoupling of respiration. The observations revealed that water can move into or out of the cristae independently of water movement out from the entire mitochondrion. Therefore, the water moving out from or into the cristae is translocated across the cristae membrane. The observations are interpreted to reveal the presence of a mechanism that actively prevents water from accumulating in the crista membrane. This mechanism allows for a low water activity to be maintained within the membrane. The variations in the frequency of intracristal spaces occurred without any simultaneous changes in the width of the space appearing between the two surface membranes after isolation of the mitochondria. The observations, therefore, do not agree with the concept that there is an outer compartment that communicates freely with intracristal spaces.