植物ATG8结合蛋白

ATG8（自噬相关蛋白8）结合蛋白通过ATG8相互作用基序（ATG8 interaction motif,AIM）或泛素相互作用基序（ubiquitin interaction motif,UIM）与ATG8相互作用,在自噬、选择性自噬和非自噬过程中起关键作用。ATG8结合蛋白在酵母和哺乳动物研究中取得了巨大进展,但在植物领域仍然滞后。本文首先概括了植物ATG8蛋白结构及特征,其次,重点阐述了作为植物选择性自噬受体的ATG8结合蛋白的结构和功能,最后,总结了参与自噬小体闭合、转运和人工合成ATG8结合蛋白研究状况。本文结合最新研究,系统总结了目前发现的植物ATG8结合蛋白结构和功能,以期为植物选择性自噬和自噬的研究提供新思路。     

ATG12–ATG3 connects basal autophagy and late endosome function

In addition to supporting cell survival in response to starvation or stress, autophagy promotes basal protein and organelle turnover. Compared to our understanding of stress-induced autophagy, little is known about how basal autophagy is regulated and how its activity is coordinated with other cellular processes. We recently identified a novel interaction between the ATG12–ATG3 conjugate and the ESCRT-associated protein PDCD6IP/Alix that promotes basal autophagy and endolysosomal trafficking. Moreover, ATG12–ATG3 is required for diverse PDCD6IP-mediated functions including late endosome distribution, exosome secretion, and viral budding. Our results highlight the importance of late endosomes for basal autophagic flux and reveal distinct roles for the core autophagy proteins ATG12 and ATG3 in controlling late endosome function.     

Vaccinia virus leads to ATG12–ATG3 conjugation and deficiency in autophagosome formation

The interactions between viruses and cellular autophagy have been widely reported. On the one hand, autophagy is an important innate immune response against viral infection. On the other hand, some viruses exploit the autophagy pathway for their survival and proliferation in host cells. Vaccinia virus is a member of the family of Poxviridae which includes the smallpox virus. The biogenesis of vaccinia envelopes, including the core envelope of the immature virus (IV), is not fully understood. In this study we investigated the possible interaction between vaccinia virus and the autophagy membrane biogenesis machinery. Massive LC3 lipidation was observed in mouse fibroblast cells upon vaccinia virus infection. Surprisingly, the vaccinia virus induced LC3 lipidation was shown to be independent of ATG5 and ATG7, as the atg5 and atg7 null mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) exhibited the same high levels of LC3 lipidation as compared with the wild-type MEFs. Mass spectrometry and immunoblotting analyses revealed that the viral infection led to the direct conjugation of ATG3, which is the E2-like enzyme required for LC3-phosphoethanonamine conjugation, to ATG12, which is a component of the E3-like ATG12–ATG5-ATG16 complex for LC3 lipidation. Consistently, ATG3 was shown to be required for the vaccinia virus induced LC3 lipidation. Strikingly, despite the high levels of LC3 lipidation, subsequent electron microscopy showed that vaccinia virus-infected cells were devoid of autophagosomes, either in normal growth medium or upon serum and amino acid deprivation. In addition, no autophagy flux was observed in virus-infected cells. We further demonstrated that neither ATG3 nor LC3 lipidation is crucial for viral membrane biogenesis or viral proliferation and infection. Together, these results indicated that vaccinia virus does not exploit the cellular autophagic membrane biogenesis machinery for their viral membrane production. Moreover, this study demonstrated that vaccinia virus instead actively disrupts the cellular autophagy through a novel molecular mechanism that is associated with aberrant LC3 lipidation and a direct conjugation between ATG12 and ATG3.     

ATG proteins: Are we always looking at autophagy?

Autophagy is an intracellular degradation pathway that is regulated by the autophagy-related (ATG) proteins. For a long time it has been thought that ATG proteins were exclusively required for autophagy, but recent experimental evidence has revealed that these proteins are part of other cellular pathways, individually or as a functional group. To estimate the extent of these so-called unconventional functions of the ATG proteins, we decided to perform an unbiased siRNA screen targeting the entire ATG proteome and used viral replication as the readout. Our results have uncovered that a surprisingly high number of ATG proteins (36%) have a positive or negative role in promoting virus replication outside their classical role in autophagy. With the increasing knowledge about ATG protein unconventional functions and our investigation results, the interpretations about the possible involvement of autophagy in cellular or organismal functions that solely rely on the depletion of a single ATG protein, should be considered cautiously.     

三白草中ATG4B抑制剂的发现及活性测定

验证从三白草中提取的两个化合物XGN56和XGN59对自噬关键蛋白ATG4B酶活性的影响及对自噬的调节作用。分子对接的方法验证化合物与游离ATG4B及ATG4B-LC3复合体的氢键结合作用;SDS-PAGE法及荧光共振能量转移法(FRET)测定化合物(10μmol/L)抑制ATG4B的IC50值;LC3融合GFP荧光标签检测化合物(10μmol/L)对LC3荧光聚集的影响,并设置正常组、给药组和药物联用Baf(0.5μmol/L)组;过表达GFP-LC3的WT-MEF及ATG5-/--MEF细胞检测化合物诱导LC3荧光点的情况。结果显示,XGN56和XGN59能分别与游离ATG4B和ATG4B-LC3复合体形成氢键作用,且两者均能剂量依赖地抑制ATG4B的酶切活性,体外IC50分别为7.74μmol/L和8.00μmol/L,同时能够ATG5依赖地促进GFP标记的自噬体的生成(P<0.001)。结果表明,两个化合物可能是通过一定程度地抑制ATG4B的酶活性从而促进细胞自噬水平。     

茄子自噬相关基因ATG8家族鉴定及表达分析

自噬相关基因ATG8在调节植物生长发育和胁迫响应中发挥着关键作用。本研究通过生物信息学技术分析ATG8在茄子基因组中的分布、结构及进化等,并研究了其在茄子不同组织、外源激素和冷处理下的表达情况。结果表明,从茄子基因组中共鉴定到7个ATG8基因,分布在6条染色体上。理化性质分析显示茄子ATG8基因编码的蛋白包含118~166个氨基酸残基,等电点在6.29~9.16之间;基因结构和保守基序分析表明,ATG8基因家族成员具有保守的基因结构和蛋白基序;启动子区域含有多种激素响应和逆境响应的顺式作用元件;茄子中有3对ATG8基因存在共线关系;茄子与拟南芥和番茄ATG8基因家族成员间分别存在10和11对共线关系。组织表达分析表明茄子ATG8主要在不同的花器官中表达,表明其可能与茄子花发育有关;此外,表达模式分析结果显示7个茄子ATG8基因对冷胁迫和ABA、MeJA、SA等外源激素均有不同程度的响应,表明ATG8基因家族在茄子生长发育、胁迫和激素响应中具有重要的功能。     

全环境保护对sAA应用ATG治疗患者感染发生率的影响

目的：探讨使用全环境保护的方法是否能减少SAA患者ATG治疗后的感染率。方法：回顾分析2008年一2012年我院血液科所有使用ATG进行IST治疗的SAA患者,对照组患者在使用ATG时仅进入百级层流病房,未进行如下的全环境保护;实验组患者使用全环境保护,即在使用ATG前进行口服不吸收抗生素、漱口、备皮、清洁灌肠等防护,然后进A．-ff~层流病房用药．入仓后每日均进行皮肤、鼻腔、口腔及肛周的消毒,两组患者的用药时机及联合用药方案均一致,比较两组患者IST治疗后感染的发生率。结果：实验组患者在全环境保护下,与对照组相比,其呼吸、消化、口腔、皮肤等系统的感染发生率明显降低,且病原茵的检出率也显著降低。结论：全环境保护可明显降低SAA患者ATG治疗后各系统和各类病原茵感染的发生率。     

SD顺序到ATG之间距离对β干扰素基因表达的影响

E.coli质粒pTS3是由Tac启动子控制的人β干扰素基因表达质粒。经S1酶消化、重组、再克隆,得到了SD顺序到ATG之间距离不等的三个新的克隆株,对β干扰素基因的表达效率都有直接影响。其中pTS6克隆株的表达水平较pTS3克隆株高16倍,其SD顺序到ATG之间的距离为8bp。     

人自噬相关蛋白ATG5的原核表达及纯化

目的:原核表达纯化带His标签的自噬相关蛋白ATG5。方法:利用PCR技术从人乳腺文库中扩增出人ATG5基因的编码序列,插入载体p ET-28a(+)中得到重组质粒,经Bam HⅠ和XhoⅠ双酶切鉴定后转化大肠杆菌Ros-sate进行小量诱导,挑选出可以诱导His-ATG5蛋白的菌液进行融合蛋白的纯化,通过Western印迹和SDS-PAGE检测融合蛋白的纯化效果。结果:用PCR技术从人乳腺文库中扩增得到约828 bp的目的片段,插入载体p ET-28a(+)构建出His-ATG5重组质粒并经酶切及测序验证;转化大肠杆菌Rossate后进行小量诱导表达并纯化蛋白,SDS-PAGE检测显示获得相对分子质量约为38×103的融合蛋白。结论:原核表达并纯化获得His-ATG5融合蛋白,为后续研究ATG5在自噬中的作用机制奠定了实验基础。     

自噬标志分子ATG8同源蛋白的生物信息

自噬是细胞重要的代谢途径,ATG8在自噬体形成过程中起着重要的作用。对ATG8蛋白进行生物信息学分析研究十分必要。本研究以NCBI中人ATG8同源蛋白序列数据为研究材料,分析其与10种模式生物间基因拷贝数、氨基酸序列、蛋白质保守位点相关性。结果表明,人6种ATG8同源蛋白分别定位于5条染色体上,均有泛素样GABARAP结构域。并且,所有模式生物的ATG8同源蛋白中N-端氨基酸序列保守性强于C-端序列。本研究构建的ATG8同源蛋白系统发育树显示,人的ATG8同源蛋白与脊椎动物(斑马鱼,爪蟾,小鼠,大鼠,牛)的ATG8蛋白亲缘关系更近,人的GABARAPs与酵母的ATG8蛋白与的亲缘关系较近。本研究为研究细胞自噬过程及机制提供了丰富的生物进化和生物信息数据支持。     

自噬相关基因ATG5在感染和炎症性疾病中的作用

自噬对生物体维持细胞内环境具有至关重要的作用。目前已经证实自噬广泛参与多种疾病的发生发展过程,例如肿瘤、免疫性疾病以及炎症性疾病等,其与炎症性疾病相关性更加密切,也是近年来的研究热点。自噬相关基因(ATGs)参与调节自噬的许多方面,其中ATG5主要参与自噬小体的双层膜弯曲,对自噬的发生起决定性作用。本文主要概述近年研究发现ATG5在炎症性疾病中的机制,并探讨自噬其作为炎症性疾病治疗方向的可能性,为炎症性疾病的诊治提供新的思路。     

小麦自噬相关因子ATG5的原核表达和抗血清制备

细胞自噬在植物生长发育和环境响应中扮演了重要角色,ATG5是参与自噬小体组装的核心因子之一。在前期工作中我们克隆了两个小麦ATG5基因TaATG5a和TaATG5b,并对其开展了初步的功能分析。鉴于后续基因功能研究中的免疫学方法涉及对特异性抗体的需求,通过载体构建、原核表达和亲和层析过程获得了TaATG5a的重组蛋白,经兔免疫过程制备了TaATG5a的抗血清,采用ELISA和Western杂交等方法鉴定了抗体的效价和特异性。结果表明,克隆于pET30a载体上的TaATG5a在大肠杆菌中能够被IPTG高效诱导表达,重组蛋白的表观分子量与理论值基本一致,表达量在诱导0-8h范围内逐渐增加。纯化的重组蛋白纯度较高,满足抗体制备要求。制备的抗血清能特异性识别原核表达和小麦内源的TaATG5a,效价达到1∶25600。此外,制备的抗血清通过Western杂交还能够识别共价连接的小麦ATG12-ATG5复合物,该复合物是小麦叶片中ATG5的主要存在形式。     

大黄鱼ATG10基因的分子特征及其在抗病毒免疫中的功能

为了研究自噬相关基因ATG10(Autophagy related gene 10)在鱼类免疫应答中的功能, 研究克隆了大黄鱼(Larimichthys crocea)ATG10基因(LcATG10)的cDNA序列, 其开放阅读框全长747个核苷酸, 编码248个氨基酸的蛋白, 包含1个Autophagy_act_C结构域。系统进化分析显示, LcATG10和其他硬骨鱼类ATG10聚成一支, 与金头鲷和石斑鱼ATG10亲缘关系最近。LcATG10在所检测的正常大黄鱼各组织中都有表达。在病毒类似物poly (I:C)刺激后, 大黄鱼脾脏和头肾组织中LcATG10的表达水平显著上调, 分别在12h和6h达到峰值(9.4和5.9倍)。LcATG10在大黄鱼头肾细胞系(LYCK)、原代巨噬细胞、淋巴细胞和粒细胞中也均有表达, 在原代粒细胞中的表达量相对较高; 在poly (I:C)刺激后, 大黄鱼原代头肾粒细胞和LYCK细胞中LcATG10的表达水平显著上调。过表达LcATG10的鲤上皮瘤(Epithelioma papulosum cyprinid, EPC)细胞受鲤春病毒血症病毒(Spring viremia of carp virus, SVCV)感染48h后, 细胞病变效应(Cytopathic effects, CPEs)明显低于对照组; 细胞培养上清中SVCV病毒滴度为103.55 TCID₅₀/mL, 显著少于对照组; SVCV标志基因SVCV- G、SVCV-M和SVCV- P的表达水平也显著低于对照组, 分别是对照组的0.022、0.015和0.022倍。这些研究结果表明LcATG10在大黄鱼抗病毒免疫应答中发挥作用, 为深入研究自噬在大黄鱼抗病毒免疫中的分子机制奠定了基础。     

人自噬相关蛋白ATG7的原核表达及纯化鉴定

目的:原核表达并纯化自噬相关蛋白ATG7,初步鉴定其生物学活性。方法:利用PCR技术从人乳腺文库中扩增出人ATG7基因的编码序列,插入载体p ET-28a(+)得到重组质粒,经Bam HⅠ和NotⅠ双酶切鉴定后转化大肠杆菌Rossate菌株进行小量诱导,纯化融合蛋白His-ATG7,通过Western印迹和SDS-PAGE检测融合蛋白的纯化效果。结果:用PCR技术从人乳腺文库中扩增得到约2031 bp的目的片段,插入载体p ET-28a(+)后构建出His-ATG7重组质粒,并经酶切鉴定及测序证实无误;转化大肠杆菌Rossate并进行小量诱导,纯化后SDS-PAGE检测显示获得相对分子质量约为78×103的融合蛋白。结论:纯化得到原核系统表达的His-ATG7融合蛋白,为后续研究ATG7在自噬中的作用机制奠定了实验基础。     

FGFR3/fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 inhibits autophagy through decreasing the ATG12–ATG5 conjugate,leading to the delay of cartilage development in achondroplasia

FGFR3 (fibroblast growth factor receptor 3) is a negative regulator of endochondral ossification. Gain-of-function mutations in FGFR3 are responsible for achondroplasia, the most common genetic form of dwarfism in humans. Autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process, maintains chondrocyte viability in the growth plate under stress conditions, such as hypoxia and nutritional deficiencies. However, the role of autophagy and its underlying molecular mechanisms in achondroplasia remain elusive. In this study, we found activated FGFR3 signaling inhibited autophagic activity in chondrocytes, both in vivo and in vitro. By employing an embryonic bone culture system, we demonstrated that treatment with autophagy inhibitor 3-MA or chloroquine led to cartilage growth retardation, which mimics the effect of activated-FGFR3 signaling on chondrogenesis. Furthermore, we found that FGFR3 interacted with ATG12–ATG5 conjugate by binding to ATG5. More intriguingly, FGFR3 signaling was found to decrease the protein level of ATG12–ATG5 conjugate. Consistently, using in vitro chondrogenic differentiation assay system, we showed that the ATG12–ATG5 conjugate was essential for the viability and differentiation of chondrocytes. Transient transfection of ATG5 partially rescued FGFR3-mediated inhibition on chondrocyte viability and differentiation. Our findings reveal that FGFR3 inhibits the autophagic activity by decreasing the ATG12–ATG5 conjugate level, which may play an essential role in the pathogenesis of achondroplasia.     

ATG12对缺氧缺血性脑病小鼠神经细胞凋亡和自噬的影响

目的探讨自噬相关蛋白12 （ATG12）对缺氧缺血性脑病（HIE）小鼠细胞凋亡和自噬的影响及分子机制。 方法通过尾静脉注射腺相关病毒构建ATG12低表达小鼠模型,将40只小鼠分为假手术组、HIE模型组、对照病毒模型（NC-HIE）组和ATG低表达病毒模型（ATG12 shRNA-HIE）组,HIE模型组小鼠左侧颈动脉结扎后低氧（8﹪氧气+92﹪氮气）处理2.5?h,假手术组不予结扎和低氧处理。缺氧处理后,荧光定量PCR检测脑组织ATG12 mRNA表达水平。比色法检测各组小鼠大脑神经细胞SOD和MDA水平;通过Tunel法检测各组小鼠大脑神经细胞凋亡水平;通过Western Blot检测各组小鼠大脑神经细胞LC3A/B、ATG12和SQSTM1/?p62蛋白表达水平。采用t检验和单因素方差分析对实验数据进行统计分析。 结果与假手术组小鼠脑组织ATG12 mRNA水平（1.00±0.14）相比,HIE模型组小鼠脑组织ATG12 mRNA水平（5.23±0.37）显著升高（t?= 33.60,P?< 0.01）;与假手术组小鼠脑组织超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）活性[（103.60±4.84）?U/?mgprot]和丙二醛（MDA）含量[（42.40±3.17）?μmol/?mgprot]比较,HIE模型组小鼠脑组织SOD活性[（62.60±3.44）?U/?mgprot]显著降低,MDA含量[（83.80±4.39）?μmol/?mgprot]显著升高,与NC-HIE组小鼠脑组织SOD活性[（61.20±4.39）?U/mgprot]和MDA含量[（85.20± 2.70）?μmol/?mgprot]比较,ATG12 shRNA-?HIE组小鼠脑组织SOD活性[（93.80± 5.43）?U/?mgprot]显著升高,MDA含量[（49.20±3.49）?μmol/mgprot]显著降低,差异具有统计学意义（F?= 222.7,P?< 0.01;F?=?415.8,P?相似文献   

ATG8ylation of proteins: A way to cope with cell stress?

The ATG8 family of proteins regulates autophagy in a variety of ways. Recently, ATG8s were demonstrated to conjugate directly to cellular proteins in a process termed “ATG8ylation,” which is amplified by mitochondrial damage and antagonized by ATG4 proteases. ATG8s may have an emerging role as small protein modifiers.

ATG8 proteins directly conjugate to cellular proteinsAutophagy describes the capture of intracellular material by autophagosomes and their delivery to lysosomes for destruction (Kaur and Debnath, 2015). This process homeostatically remodels the intracellular environment and is necessary for an organism to overcome starvation (Kaur and Debnath, 2015). The autophagy pathway is coordinated by autophagy-related (ATG) proteins that are controlled by diverse post-translational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, and lipidation; Ichimura et al., 2000; McEwan and Dikic, 2011). Recently, a previously uncharacterized post-translational modification termed “ATG8ylation” was uncovered (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). ATG8ylation is the direct covalent attachment of the small ubiquitin-like family of ATG8 proteins to cellular proteins (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). Until now, the only known instances of ATG8 conjugation to proteins were of a transient nature, as E1- and E2-like intermediates with ATG7 and ATG3, respectively, as a way of ligating ATG8 to the lipid phosphatidylethanolamine during autophagy (Ichimura et al., 2000). Therefore, ATG8ylation may represent an underappreciated regulatory mechanism for many cellular proteins that coordinate pathways such as mitophagy.ATG8s play many roles in the autophagy pathwayDuring canonical autophagy, the ATG8 family (comprising LC3A, -B, and -C and GABARAP, -L1, and -L2) undergoes molecular processing that concludes with their attachment to phosphatidylethanolamine, enabling proper construction of autophagosomes and subsequent autophagosome–lysosome fusion (Nguyen et al., 2016). The ATG4 family of cysteine proteases (ATG4A, -B, -C, and -D) cleaves ATG8 proteins immediately after a conserved glycine residue in their C terminus in a process dubbed “priming,” which leads to the formation of ATG8-I (Skytte Rasmussen et al., 2017; Tanida et al., 2004). ATG7 then attaches to the exposed glycine residue of ATG8-I via a thioester linkage to form an E1 ubiquitin-like complex that transfers ATG8-I to ATG3 in a similar way to generate an E2-like complex (Ichimura et al., 2000). The ATG5–ATG12–ATG16L1 complex then catalyzes the E3-like transfer of ATG8-I from ATG3 to phosphatidylethanolamine to form ATG8-II, which is the lipidated species that is incorporated into double membrane–bound compartments such as autophagosomes (Hanada et al., 2007). The lipidation of ATG8s and their recruitment to the phagophore are not essential for the formation of autophagosomes but are important for phagophore expansion, the selective capture of autophagic substrates, and autophagosome–lysosome fusion (Kirkin and Rogov, 2019; Nguyen et al., 2016). Intriguingly, ATG8 lipidation is multifaceted, as ATG8s can be alternatively lipidated with phosphatidylserine (instead of phosphatidylethanolamine) to enable their recruitment to single membrane–bound compartments during LC3-associated phagocytosis, influenza infection, and lysosomal dysfunction (Durgan et al., 2021).The discovery of ATG8ylationKey insights into ATG8ylation came from the observation that various ATG8s form high-molecular-weight species in cells following the expression of their primed forms that have their C-terminal glycine exposed (for example, LC3B-G), bypassing the need for cleavage by ATG4 (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). Indeed, on an immunoblot, ATG8⁺ “smears” resemble that of ubiquitinated proteins (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). Traditionally, in the autophagy field, ATG8⁺ smears were thought to arise from poor antibody specificity. However, in light of recent findings, this widely accepted interpretation has been challenged, given that ATG8⁺ smears are enriched following ATG8 overexpression and disappear in the absence of ATG8s (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). Smearing has also been detected after immunoprecipitation of epitope-tagged ATG8s from cell extracts under denaturing conditions, ruling out noncovalent interactions accounting for this upshift (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). Further, smearing is not abolished by deubiquitinase treatment, arguing strongly against ATG8 ubiquitination as the cause (Nguyen et al., 2021). Everything considered, the most plausible explanation is that ATG8 itself undergoes covalent linkage to cellular proteins, akin to ubiquitin and NEDD8 modifiers, which are structurally similar to ATG8s. Remarkably, the protease ATG4 antagonizes the ATG8ylation state of many proteins (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021).ATG4 displays isoform-specific proteolytic cleavage of ATG8ATG4 is required for the formation of autophagosomes, but its protease activity is not (Nguyen et al., 2021). The protease activity of ATG4 is, however, required for ATG8 processing, such as priming ahead of lipidation and de-lipidation, which removes excess ATG8 from autophagosomes and other membranes (Nguyen et al., 2021; Tanida et al., 2004; Fig. 1 A). Apart from these functions, ATG4 regulates the deubiquitinase-like removal of ATG8 from cellular proteins (de-ATG8ylation; Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021; Fig. 1 A). Consistent with this role, deletion of all four ATG4 isoforms (A, B, C, and D) increases the abundance of ATG8ylated proteins (Nguyen et al., 2021). In contrast, overexpression of ATG4B has the opposite effect, but only if its protease activity is intact (Agrotis et al., 2019). As such, ATG4 inhibits the ATG8ylation state of many proteins, which is likely to modulate their downstream functions.Open in a separate windowFigure 1.The many roles of ATG4 in ATG8 processing. (A) Molecular processing of ATG8 proteins by ATG4 illustrating its roles in priming, de-lipidation, and de-ATG8ylation. The structure of LC3B (Protein Data Bank accession no. 1V49) was used to denote ATG8 (G, glycine; PE, phosphatidylethanolamine). (B) Heatmap summarizing relationships between ATG4 isoforms and ATG8 family members. Data were summarized for qualitative interpretation (Agrotis et al., 2019; Li et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2021). Int., intermediate; N.d., not determined. (C) Graphical summary of questions moving forward with ATG8ylation (P, phosphorylation).ATG4 is an important “gatekeeper” for ATG8 conjugation events. ATG4 primes ATG8s to expose their C-terminal glycine, which is required for conjugation to proteins or lipids; however, ATG4 also catalyzes de-ATG8ylation and de-lipidation events, respectively (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021; Tanida et al., 2004). Because the C-terminal glycine of a single ATG8 is occupied when conjugated to a protein or lipid, it is unlikely that ATG8ylated proteins directly engage with phagophore membranes in the same way as ATG8-II. Indeed, protease protection assays with recombinant ATG4B reveal that de-ATG8ylation of cell lysates remains unchanged with or without organellar membrane disruption, suggesting that ATG8ylated proteins are largely cytoplasmic facing rather than intraluminal (Agrotis et al., 2019). Paradoxically, however, ATG8ylation is enhanced by lysosomal V-type ATPase inhibition, which blocks the degradation of lysosomal contents, indicating that ATG8ylated substrates may undergo lysosome-dependent turnover (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). One explanation for these differences may be that the process of ATG8ylation is itself sensitive to lysosomal dysfunction.Functional relationships between ATG4s and ATG8sIsoforms of ATG4 show clear preferences for proteolytically processing ATG8 subfamilies (i.e., LC3s and GABARAPs) for de-ATG8ylation and priming upstream of phosphatidylethanolamine ligation (Agrotis et al., 2019; Li et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2021; Fig. 1 B). ATG4A strongly reduces the abundance of proteins that have been ATG8ylated with the GABARAP family while promoting ligation of GABARAPs to phosphatidylethanolamine (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021; Fig. 1 B). In contrast, ATG4B strongly reduces the abundance of proteins that have been ATG8ylated with LC3 proteins while promoting ligation of LC3s to phosphatidylethanolamine (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021; Fig. 1 B). In comparison, ATG4C and -D lack obvious de-ATG8ylation activity, although the latter weakly promotes phosphatidylethanolamine ligation to GABARAPL1 only (Nguyen et al., 2021). These functional similarities between ATG4 isoforms are consistent with both their sequence and structural homology (i.e., ATG4A and -B are most similar; Maruyama and Noda, 2018; Satoo et al., 2009). Structurally, ATG4B adopts an auto-inhibited conformation with its regulatory loop and N-terminal tail blocking substrate entry to its proteolytic core (Maruyama and Noda, 2018). LC3B induces conformational rearrangements in ATG4B that involve displacement of its regulatory loop and its N-terminal tail, with the latter achieved by an interaction between the ATG8-interacting region in its N-terminal tail with a second copy of LC3B that functions allosterically (Maruyama and Noda, 2018; Satoo et al., 2009). These rearrangements permit entry of LC3B into the proteolytic core of ATG4B, where cleavage of LC3B following its C-terminal glycine occurs (Li et al., 2011; Maruyama and Noda, 2018). ATG4B^L232 is directly involved in LC3B binding and its selectivity for LC3s (Satoo et al., 2009). This residue corresponds to ATG4A^I233 and, when substituted for leucine, gives ATG4A^I233L the ability to efficiently process LC3 proteins, whereas without this mutation it preferentially processes GABARAPs (Satoo et al., 2009). Moreover, the ATG8–ATG4 interaction is necessary for the de-ATG8ylation of cellular proteins, as an LC3B-G^Q116P mutant that cannot bind to ATG4 leads to widespread ATG8ylation (Agrotis et al., 2019). Altogether, these observations hint toward a common mechanism of ATG8 cleavage that regulates priming, de-lipidation, and de-ATG8ylation.Mitochondrial damage promotes ATG8ylationATG8ylation of cellular proteins appears to be enhanced by mitochondrial depolarization and inhibition of the lysosomal V-type ATPase (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). This may be the consequence of acute ATG4A and -B inhibition, given that cells lacking all ATG4 isoforms display an increased abundance of ATG8ylated proteins and are insensitive to further increase by mitochondrial depolarization or lysosomal V-type ATPase inhibition (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). Indeed, mitochondrial depolarization leads to activation of ULK1, which phosphorylates ATG4B^S316 to inhibit its protease activity (Pengo et al., 2017). Similarly, mitochondrial depolarization stimulates TBK1 activation, which prevents de-lipidation of ATG8s by blocking the ATG8–ATG4 interaction through phosphorylation of LC3C^S93/S96 and GABARAP-L2^S87/S88 (Herhaus et al., 2020; Richter et al., 2016). As such, ATG8 phosphorylation may render ATG8ylated substrates more resistant to de-ATG8ylation by ATG4s. This may be analogous to how chains of phosphorylated ubiquitin^S65 are more resistant to hydrolysis by deubiquitinating enzymes than unphosphorylated ones (Wauer et al., 2015). Moreover, ATG8ylation is insensitive to nutrient deprivation and pharmacological inhibition of mTOR, which rules out a functional contribution of this process to starvation-induced autophagy (Agrotis et al., 2019). Therefore, ATG8ylation may be a unique aspect of mitophagy (and perhaps also other forms of selective autophagy) given that depolarization potently activates Parkin-dependent mitophagy (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021).Substrates of ATG8ylationBased on ATG8⁺ smearing, ATG4 regulates the de-ATG8ylation of numerous proteins (Agrotis et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2021). For the majority, their identity, induced structural and functional changes, and the cellular contexts during which these modifications occur await exploration. Considering that the ATG8 interactome is well characterized, it is likely that at least some ATG8ylated proteins have been mistaken for ATG8-binding partners (Behrends et al., 2010). Given their E2- and E3-like roles in ATG8 lipidation, it is remarkable that ATG3 and ATG16L1 are themselves modified by ATG8ylation (Agrotis et al., 2019; Hanada et al., 2007; Ichimura et al., 2000; Nguyen et al., 2021). Lysine mutagenesis indicates that ATG3^K243 is the “acceptor” site for ATG8ylation (Agrotis et al., 2019). ATG3^K243 is essential for its conjugation to either LC3B or ATG12 and is required for autophagosomes to form around damaged mitochondria (Agrotis et al., 2019; Radoshevich et al., 2010). This also raises the possibility that key functions originally attributed to ATG3–ATG12 conjugation may be, at least in part, due to ATG3–ATG8 conjugation. Because multiple high-molecular-weight species of ATG3 are enriched following immunoprecipitation of primed LC3B-G from cells lacking ATG4B, it is likely that ATG3 is either mono-ATG8ylated at several sites or poly-ATG8ylated (Agrotis et al., 2019). ATG8ylation of ATG3 may also reflect the stabilization of its E2-like intermediate (Ichimura et al., 2000). ATG8ylation of ATG16L1 may regulate whether canonical or noncanonical autophagy pathways are activated (Durgan et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2021). In line with this possibility, the WD40 domain mutant of ATG16L1^K490A prevents lipidation of ATG8s with phosphatidylserine (i.e., during noncanonical autophagy pathways) but not phosphatidylethanolamine (i.e., during canonical autophagy; Durgan et al., 2021). Moreover, given that ATG8ylation of protein targets correlates with the activation of mitophagy, it is tempting to speculate that it may stimulate the E2-/E3-like activity of the ATG8 conjugation machinery to amplify mitochondrial capture and destruction.Concluding remarksThe finding that numerous cellular proteins are modified by ATG8ylation poses several questions about how signaling networks are coordinated during selective autophagy (i.e., mitophagy). Whether ATG8ylation is augmented by mitochondrial injury per se or is the consequence of mitophagy activation is yet to be determined, as is whether this phenomenon occurs during other types of selective autophagy (e.g., ER-phagy, ribophagy, and lysophagy; Kirkin and Rogov, 2019; Fig. 1 C). While the in vivo relevance of ATG8ylation is not yet understood, it is plausible that this process could be altered in diseases with defective mitophagy (e.g., Parkinson’s disease and atherosclerosis). Exploring the mechanistic aspects of ATG8ylation (e.g., ATG8 ligases and regulatory proteins, linkage types, acceptor sites, etc.) and de-ATG8ylation by ATG4 will improve our understanding about how this modifier alters the structure and biological function of cellular proteins (Fig. 1 C). By identifying ATG8ylated substrates, or the ATG8ylome, insights into whether ATG8ylation is a ubiquitous epiphenomenon or a post-translational modification that is selective to proteins of distinct biological function(s) will become clearer (Fig. 1 C). Considering the similarity of ATG8s with bona fide modifier proteins (e.g., ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins) and the diversity of their substrates (e.g., lipid species and proteins), only now are we beginning to understand the functional complexities of the ATG8 protein family.     

ATG13: Just a companion,or an executor of the autophagic program?

During the past 20 years, autophagy signaling has entered the main stage of the cell biological theater. Autophagy represents an intracellular degradation process that is involved in both the bulk recycling of cytoplasmic components and the selective removal of organelles, protein aggregates, or intracellular pathogens. The understanding of autophagy has been greatly facilitated by the characterization of the molecular machinery governing this process. In yeast, initiation of autophagy is controlled by the Atg1 kinase complex, which is composed of the Ser/Thr kinase Atg1, the adaptor protein Atg13, and the ternary complex of Atg17-Atg31-Atg29. In vertebrates, the orthologous ULK1 kinase complex contains the Ser/Thr kinase ULK1 and the accessory proteins ATG13, RB1CC1, and ATG101. Among these components, Atg1/ULK1 have gained major attention in the past, i.e., for the identification of upstream regulatory kinases, the characterization of downstream substrates controlling the autophagic flux, or as a druggable target for the modulation of autophagy. However, accumulating data indicate that the function of Atg13/ATG13 has been likely underestimated so far. In addition to ensuring proper Atg1/ULK1 recruitment and activity, this adaptor molecule has been implicated in ULK1-independent autophagy processes. Furthermore, recent data have identified additional binding partners of Atg13/ATG13 besides the components of the Atg1/ULK1 complex, e.g., Atg8 family proteins or acidic phospholipids. Therefore, in this review we will center the spotlight on Atg13/ATG13 and summarize the role that Atg13/ATG13 assumes in the autophagy stage play.     

布氏锥虫自噬蛋白ATG12的表达、纯化及二级结构预测

[目的]表达纯化布氏锥虫自噬蛋白TbATG12,并对其二级结构进行预测。[方法]克隆TbATG12编码序列,采用酶切连接方法构建表达载体TbATG12(pET-28a),转化进入BL21(DE3)表达菌株诱导蛋白表达,利用Ni^(2+)-NAT亲和层析及分子筛层析方法纯化蛋白。采用核磁手段,采集一维和二维谱图,利用JPred 4预测其二级结构。[结果]16℃、0.5 mmol/L IPTG诱导20 h,TbATG12以可溶蛋白形式存在。纯化后蛋白纯度可达95%。TbATG12谱峰分布均匀,强度较强,二级结构预测其含有3个α-螺旋和5个β-折叠,为后续解析TbATG12溶液结构提供指导。[结论]克隆、表达纯化得到纯度>95%可溶TbATG12蛋白,二级结构预测和比对发现其结构在进化上很保守。     

肌萎缩侧索硬化症转基因小鼠脊髓中自噬相关基因ATG5表达降低

目的明确自噬相关基因ATG5在肌萎缩侧索硬化症(amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,ALS)转基因鼠脊髓中的表达情况.方法取95d、108d和122d ALS转基因小鼠和野生型小鼠脊髓,应用免疫荧光、Western blot和RT-PCR技术,检测ATG5在脊髓中的表达.结果免疫荧光染色检测显示,在脊髓内,ATG5免疫反应产物主要定位于神经元;与同窝野生型小鼠比较,脊髓内ATG5免疫反应性在95d转基因小鼠无明显差异,而在108d和122d转基因小鼠明显降低.Western blot和RT-PCR分析显示,与同窝野生型小鼠比较,脊髓内ATG5 mRNA和蛋白表达水平在95d无明显变化,但在108d和122d时,转基因小鼠脊髓内ATG5 mRNA和蛋白表达均显著低于同窝野生型小鼠.结论ATG5在ALS转基因鼠脊髓中表达降低,提示ATG5表达异常与ALS发生密切相关.