产志贺毒素大肠埃希菌的分子生物学鉴定和耐药性分析

为了解产志贺毒素大肠埃希菌 (Shigatoxin producingEscherichiacoli ,STEC)stx1,stx2 ,eaeA ,hlyA 4种毒力基因的分布情况 ,以及分离株对 18种抗生素的敏感性 ,采用多重PCR(multiplexPCR ,mPCR)法对分离株进行毒力基因的分子生物学鉴定 ;用WHO推荐的K B法对分离株进行抗生素的敏感性测定。产志贺毒素的大肠埃希菌共有 4 6株 ,其中 2种毒素均产生的有 2 2株 (4 7.8% ) ;单纯产生stx1的有 16株 (36 .9% ) ,stx2 的有 8株 (17.4 % ) ;4种毒力基因均存在的有 19株 (4 1.3% ) ,血清型为O15 7∶H7,而非O15 7∶H7血清型的菌株 (2 3/46 )中 ,4种毒力基因同时存在的仅有 3株 (6 .6 % ) ,但有 13株 (5 6 .9% )hlyA基因阳性。全部STEC对复方新诺明耐药 ,对链霉素耐药率为 2 8.3% ,氨苄西林为 30 .4 % ,红霉素为 6 9.6 % ,而且有 5株对至少 4种以上抗生素多重耐药 ,耐药谱为复方新诺明 链霉素 红霉素 氨苄西林。非O15 7型STEC耐药菌次为 12 2 ,而O15 7型为 6 3。可见 ,mPCR法可以快速检测STEC特征性毒力基因 ,以判定其致病性能。非O15 7型STEC对抗生素较易形成耐药性。     

Microarray analysis of microbial virulence factors.

Hybridization with oligonucleotide microchips (microarrays) was used for discrimination among strains of Escherichia coli and other pathogenic enteric bacteria harboring various virulence factors. Oligonucleotide microchips are miniature arrays of gene-specific oligonucleotide probes immobilized on a glass surface. The combination of this technique with the amplification of genetic material by PCR is a powerful tool for the detection of and simultaneous discrimination among food-borne human pathogens. The presence of six genes (eaeA, slt-I, slt-II, fliC, rfbE, and ipaH) encoding bacterial antigenic determinants and virulence factors of bacterial strains was monitored by multiplex PCR followed by hybridization of the denatured PCR product to the gene-specific oligonucleotides on the microchip. The assay was able to detect these virulence factors in 15 Salmonella, Shigella, and E. coli strains. The results of the chip analysis were confirmed by hybridization of radiolabeled gene-specific probes to genomic DNA from bacterial colonies. In contrast, gel electrophoretic analysis of the multiplex PCR products used for the microarray analysis produced ambiguous results due to the presence of unexpected and uncharacterized bands. Our results suggest that microarray analysis of microbial virulence factors might be very useful for automated identification and characterization of bacterial pathogens.     

产志贺毒素大肠杆菌O18 XZ113 株主要毒力基因eaeA、stx2、ehxA 突变株的构建及其对小鼠的致病作用

[目的]探讨毒力基因eaeA、stx2、ehxA与产志贺毒素大肠杆菌O18致病力的关系.[方法]利用λ-Red重组系统,构建STEC XZ113株eaeA、stx2、ehxA基因缺失突变株并进行一系列生物学特性的研究.[结果]细胞粘附试验表明突变株XZ113△eaeA对HEp-2细胞的粘附能力明显降低;Vero细胞毒素试验表明突变株XZ113 △stx2失去了使Vero细胞发生病变的能力;溶血活性试验表明突变株XZ113△ehxA无法在血平板上产生溶血圈,丢失了溶血能力.回复株在以上表型方面与野生株XZ113一致;与亲本株的体外竞争试验结果表明,突变株竞争力减弱,体内竞争结果表明突变株XZ1 13△eaeA被中度致弱;突变株XZ113 △stx2和突变株XZ113△ehxA被高度致弱.[结论]stx2、ehxA基因在STEC O18 XZ113株的致病过程中发挥着更为重要的作用.     

Development of a multiplex PCR approach for the identification of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli strains and their major virulence factor genes

AIMS: To develop and evaluate a multiplex PCR (mPCR) system for rapid and specific identification of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and their main virulence marker genes. METHODS AND RESULTS: A series of mPCR assays were developed using primer pairs that identify the sequences of Shiga toxins 1 and 2 (stx1 and stx2, including the stx2c, stx2d, stx2e and stx2f variants), intimin (eaeA), and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli enterohaemolysin (ehlyA). Moreover, two additional genes (rfb O157 and fliC H7), providing the genotypic identification of the O157:H7 E. coli serotype, were detected. As an internal positive control, primers designated to amplify the E. coli 16S rRNA were included in each mPCR. All the amplified genes in the E. coli reference strains were sucessfully identified by this procedure. The method was then used for the examination of 202 E. coli isolates recovered from cattle and children. Among them, 25 (12.4%) were stx positive including the strains of O157:H7 serotype (six isolates) and O157:NM serogroup (four strains). Moreover, 20 STEC strains possessed the eaeA (intimin) and ehlyA (enterohaemolysin) genes. CONCLUSIONS: The developed mPCR-based system enabled specific detection of STEC bacteria and identification of their main virulence marker genes. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The ability to identify STEC bacteria and the majority of their virulence gene markers, including four variants of Shiga toxin, as well as the differentiation of O157:H7 from non-O157 isolates represents a considerable advancement over other PCR-based methods for rapid characterization of STEC.     

Octaplex PCR and fluorescence-based capillary electrophoresis for identification of human diarrheagenic Escherichia coli and Shigella spp

A multiplex PCR assay, amplifying seven specific virulence genes and one internal control gene in a single reaction, was developed to identify the five main pathotypes of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli and Shigella spp. The virulence genes selected for each category were Stx1, Stx2, and eaeA for enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), eaeA for enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), STIb and LTI for enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), ipaH for enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) and Shigella spp., and aggR for enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC). Each forward primer was labelled with a fluorochrome and the PCR products were separated by multicolour capillary electrophoresis on an ABI PRISM310 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems). If present, several gene variants of each virulence gene were identified. The internal control gene rrs, encoding 16S rRNA, was amplified in all 110 clinical strains analyzed. Virulence genes were demonstrated in 103 (94%) of these strains. In the majority of the cases (98/103, 95%), classification obtained by the novel multiplex PCR assay was in agreement with that previously determined by phenotypic assays combined with other molecular genetic approaches. Numerous multiplex PCR assays have been published, but only a few of them detect all five E. coli pathotypes within a single reaction, and none of them has used multicolour capillary electrophoresis to separate the PCR products. The octaplex PCR assay followed by capillary electrophoresis presented in the present paper provides a simple, reliable, and rapid procedure that in a single reaction identifies the five main pathotypes of E. coli, and Shigella spp. This assay will replace the previous molecular genetic methods used in our laboratory and work as an important supplement to the more time-consuming phenotypic assays.     

Investigation of diarrhoeic faecal samples for enterotoxigenic, Shiga toxin-producing and typical or atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in Kashmir, India

Three hundred and twenty-six Escherichia coli isolates recovered from 326 human faecal specimens from sporadic cases of diarrhoea in Kashmir valley, India, were investigated for the presence of stx(1), stx(2), eaeA, hlyA and lt virulence genes. None of the samples was positive for stx genes or Shiga toxins by PCR or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Twenty-three E. coli isolates showed the presence of the eaeA gene, whereas three isolates harboured the lt gene. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) belonged to 10 different serogroups. Out of 23 EPEC isolates, the majority (78.26%) were atypical while five (21.73%) were typical. Only one of the typical EPEC harboured the EAF plasmid. Subtyping of the eaeA gene showed the presence of eaeA-alpha(1), eaeA-beta, eaeA-xi and eaeA-eta in one, two, four and two isolates, respectively. None of the E. coli isolates possessed eaeA-delta, eaeA-epsilon and eaeA-zeta. This study further upholds the opinion that Shiga toxin-producing E. coli do not pose a major threat to human health in India and eaeA-alpha(1), eaeA-beta, eaeA-xi and eaeA-eta could be common EPEC subtypes prevalent in humans with diarrhoea in India. The present study appears to be the first report of subtype analysis of the eaeA gene from India and also records the isolation of EPEC with the eaeA-xi gene from humans.     

Race analysis of Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici in Iran

The wheat stripe (yellow) rust is one of the most important diseases in Iran. In this study, 41 races out of 104 isolates in greenhouse were determined from 2008 to 2010. Races 6E6A+, 6E10A+ and 6E0A+ were more common. Races 0E0A+ was less aggressive than races 166E158A+ and 134E158A+ with virulence on 11 known genes. Virulence on plant/s with gene/s Yr1, Yr2, Yr4, Yr6, Yr7, Yr8, Yr9, Yr10, Yr25, Yr27, YrSU, YrSD, YrND, Yr3, Yr2+, Yr6+, Yr9+, Yr7+, YrCV and YrA was detected. The majority of isolates with high frequency (more than 70%) showed virulence on plant/s with Yr2, Yr7, Yr9 and YrA genes. No virulence was detected on plant/s with Yr3, Yr5 and YrSP. In greenhouse test, frequency of virulence to wheat genotypes with Yr1, Yr4, Yr10, YrCV (32+) and YrSD gene was less than 7%. Frequency of virulence to other wheat genotypes was between 8 and 100%.     

The Yersinia pestis V antigen is a regulatory protein necessary for Ca2(+)-dependent growth and maximal expression of low-Ca2+ response virulence genes.

The low-Ca2+ response is a multicomponent virulence regulon of the human-pathogenic yersiniae in which 12 known virulence genes are coordinately regulated in response to environmental cues of temperature, Ca2+, and nucleotides such as ATP. Yersinial growth also is regulated, with full growth yield being permitted at 37 degrees C only if Ca2+ or a nucleotide is present. In this study, we constructed and characterized a mutant Yersinia pestis specifically defective in the gene encoding the V antigen, one of the virulence genes of the low-Ca2+ response. An in-frame internal deletion-insertion mutation was made by removing bases 51 through 645 of lcrV and inserting 61 new bases. The altered lcrV was introduced into the low-Ca2+ response plasmid in Y. pestis by allelic exchange, and the resulting mutant was characterized for its two-dimensional protein profiles, growth, expression of an operon fusion to another low-Ca2+ response virulence operon, and virulence in mice. The mutant had lost its Ca2+ and nucleotide requirement for growth, showed diminished expression of Ca2(+)-and nucleotide-regulated virulence genes, and was avirulent in mice. The mutation could be complemented with respect to the growth property by supplying native V antigen operon sequences in trans in high copy number (on pBR322). Partial complementation of the growth defect and almost complete complementation of the virulence defect were seen with a lower-copy-number complementing replicon (a pACYC184 derivative). The data are consistent with the interpretation that V antigen is bifunctional, with a role in regulating growth and expression of low-Ca2+ response virulence genes in addition to its putative role as a secreted virulence protein.     

Detection of two Shiga-like toxins from Escherichia coli O157:H7 isolates by the polymerase chain reaction method

Fourteen isolates of E. coli O157:H7 and five isolates of S. dysenteriae type-1 were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the structural genes (slt-I or slt-II), encoding Shiga-like toxins (SLTs). The two primer pairs (V1; 5'AGTTAATGTGGTGGCGAA and V2; 5'GACTGCGTCAGTGAGGTT for SLT-I, V3; 5'TTCGGTATCCTATTCCCG and V4; 5'TCTCTGGTCATTGTATTA for SLT-II) used were of the same positions representing the DNA sequence covering 471bp of the slt-I or slt-II. A 5-microliter portion of boiled bacterial culture broth was used as template DNA in a PCR-reaction mixture of 50 microliters. Two classes, slt-I alone or both slt-I and slt-II, were recognized in E. coli strains. All of S. dysenteriae type-1 strains examined contained slt-I alone. Our results indicate that PCR using these primer pairs is a simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific method and suitable for use in routine diagnostic microbiology laboratories.     

Prevalence of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli stx1, stx2, eaeA, and rfbE genes and survival of E. coli O157:H7 in manure from organic and low-input conventional dairy farms

Manure samples were collected from 16 organic (ORG) and 9 low-input conventional (LIC) Dutch dairy farms during August and September 2004 to determine the prevalence of the STEC virulence genes stx(1) (encoding Shiga toxin 1), stx(2) (encoding Shiga toxin 2), and eaeA (encoding intimin), as well as the rfbE gene, which is specific for Escherichia coli O157. The rfbE gene was present at 52% of the farms. The prevalence of rfbE was higher at ORG farms (61%) than at LIC farms (36%), but this was not significant. Relatively more LIC farms were positive for all Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) virulence genes eaeA, stx(1), and stx(2), which form a potentially highly virulent combination. Species richness of Enterobacteriaceae, as determined by DGGE, was significantly lower in manure positive for rfbE. Survival of a green fluorescent protein-expressing E. coli O157:H7 strain was studied in the manure from all farms from which samples were obtained and was modeled by a biphasic decline model. The time needed to reach the detection limit was predominantly determined by the level of native coliforms and the pH (both negative relationships). Initial decline was faster for ORG manure but leveled off earlier, resulting in longer survival than in LIC manure. Although the nonlinear decline curve could theoretically be explained as the cumulative distribution of an underlying distribution of decline kinetics, it is proposed that the observed nonlinear biphasic pattern of the survival curve is the result of changing nutrient status of the manure over time (and thereby changing competition pressure), instead of the presence of subpopulations differing in the level of resistance.     

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli in healthy goats in India: occurrence and virulence properties

AIMS: To describe the occurrence and virulence gene pattern of shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) in healthy goats of Jammu and Kashmir, India. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 220 E. coli strains belonging to 60 different 'O' serogroups was isolated from 206 local (nonmigratory) and 69 migratory goats. All the 220 strains were screened for the presence of stx(1), stx(2), eaeA and hlyA genes. Twenty-eight E. coli (75.6%) strains from local and nine (24.3%) strains from migratory goats belonging to 18 different serogroups showed at least presence of one virulence gene studied. Twenty-eight strains (16.47%) (belonging to 13 different serogroups) from local goats carried stx(1) gene alone or in combination with stx(2) gene, while as only one strain (2%) from migratory goats possessed stx(2) gene alone. Interestingly in the present study none of the STEC strains carried eaeA gene. Similarly, none of the strains from local goats possessed eaeA and none of the migratory goats possessed stx(1) gene. Eight strains (16%) (belonging to four different serogroups) from migratory goats carried eaeA gene. Twenty-five (14.7%) and seven (14%) strains from local and migratory goats harboured hlyA gene respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Healthy goats of Jammu and Kashmir state serve as a reservoir of STEC and EPEC. Further studies in this direction are needed to work out whether or not they are transmitted to humans in this part of world. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study is the first report of isolation of STEC and EPEC strains from healthy goats in Jammu and Kashmir State of India, which could be a source of infection to humans.     

Rapid categorization of pathogenic Escherichia coli by multiplex PCR

A one-shot multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed for detecting 12 virulence genes of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. In order to differentiate between the five categories of diarrheagenic E. coli, we selected the target genes: stx1, stx2, and eaeA for enterohemorrhagic E. coli(EHEC); eaeA, bfpA, and EAF for enteropathogenic E. coli(EPEC); invE for enteroinvasive E. coli(EIEC); elt, estp, and esth for enterotoxigenic E. coli(ETEC); CVD432 and aggR for enteroaggregative E. coli(EAggEC); and astA distributed over the categories of diarrheagenic E. coli. In our multiplex PCR system, all 12 targeted genes (stx1, stx2, eaeA, invE, elt, estp, astA, esth, bfpA, aggR, EAF, and CVD432) were amplified in a single PCR reaction in one tube and detected by electrophoresis. Using our multiplex PCR, the 208 clinically isolated strains of diarrheagenic E. coli in our laboratory were successfully categorized and easily analyzed for the presence of virulence plasmids.     

Characterization of the eaeA gene from rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strain RDEC-1 and comparison to other eaeA genes from bacteria that cause attaching-effacing lesions

Abstract A number of enteric pathogens, including enteropathogenic (EPEC) and enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) Escherichia coli , Hafnia alvei , a strain of Citrobacter freundii , and rabbit EPEC strain RDEC-1 cause attaching-effacing (AE) lesions in the gut mucosa. These bacteria have a pathogenicity cassette (locus of enterocyte effacement or LEE) containing the eaeA gene. This gene encodes intimin, an outer membrane protein required for production of AE lesions. RDEC-1, a non-invasive enteropathogen in young rabbits, produces AE lesions morphologically indistinguishable from lesions caused by human AE bacterial strains. The RDEC-1 example of E. coli diarrhea in rabbits is an important model for studying the pathogenesis of AE bacteria in a natural infection and for analyzing specific roles of the components of LEE. In order to better understand the role of intimin in the development of AE lesions, a portion of DNA within RDEC-1 LEE, containing the eaeA gene and an upstream open reading frame (ORF), was sequenced. The RDEC-1 eaeA gene shared 87%, 92%, and 93% DNA sequence identity and > 80% amino acid sequence identity with the eaeA genes of C. freundii biotype 4280, EHEC O157:H7, and EPEC O127:H6, respectively. The carboxy-terminal 280 amino acid residues of intimin has 80%, 56%, and 54% identity with C. freundii , EHEC O157:H7, and EPEC O127:H6 intimins, respectively. The predicted protein encoded by the upstream ORF (156 amino acids) shares 95%, 97%, and 99% amino acid identity with predicted proteins from C. freundii , EHEC O157:H7, and EPEC O127:H6, respectively. The high degree of sequence homology of the ORF and the eaeA gene of RDEC-1 with those of other AE bacteria suggests an evolutionary relationship of LEE and supports and facilitates the use of the RDEC-1 model for studying the role of LEE in pathogenesis.     

Molecular evolution of phosphoprotein phosphatases in Drosophila

Phosphoprotein phosphatases (PPP), these ancient and important regulatory enzymes are present in all eukaryotic organisms. Based on the genome sequences of 12 Drosophila species we traced the evolution of the PPP catalytic subunits and noted a substantial expansion of the gene family. We concluded that the 18-22 PPP genes of Drosophilidae were generated from a core set of 8 indispensable phosphatases that are present in most of the insects. Retropositons followed by tandem gene duplications extended the phosphatase repertoire, and sporadic gene losses contributed to the species specific variations in the PPP complement. During the course of these studies we identified 5, up till now uncharacterized phosphatase retrogenes: PpY+, PpD5+, PpD6+, Pp4+, and Pp6+ which are found only in some ancient Drosophila. We demonstrated that all of these new PPP genes exhibit a distinct male specific expression. In addition to the changes in gene numbers, the intron-exon structure and the chromosomal localization of several PPP genes was also altered during evolution. The G-C content of the coding regions decreased when a gene moved into the heterochromatic region of chromosome Y. Thus the PPP enzymes exemplify the various types of dynamic rearrangements that accompany the molecular evolution of a gene family in Drosophilidae.     

Characterization of a multigene-encoded sodium/hydrogen antiporter (sha) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa: its involvement in pathogenesis

Sha (also known as Mrp/Mnh/Pha) is a Na+/H+ antiporter encoded by a cluster of six or seven genes that probably form a multisubunit transport complex. The Sha system is important for the homeostasis of H+, Na+, and other monovalent cations and plays a critical role in various functions, including alkaliphily, sporulation, and symbiosis. Here, we characterized the sha homologue genes from the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which exist as a cluster of six genes (PA1054 to PA1059). The gene cluster PA1054 to PA1059, but not the cluster with a deletion of PA1054, complemented a growth defect in the presence of 0.2 M NaCl and a defect in Na+/H+ antiport activity of the Escherichia coli TO114 mutant lacking the three major Na+/H+ antiporters, indicating that genes PA1054 to PA1059 are responsible for Na+/H+ antiport activity. We disrupted PA1054 (a shaA homologue gene) and determined its effect on Na+ tolerance during growth, Na+ efflux, and pathogenicity in mice. Disruption of PA1054 resulted in severe Na+ sensitivity during growth and decreased Na+ efflux activity. In mice, the deletion mutant of PA1054 also exhibited an attenuated virulence in systemic, pulmonary, and urinary tract infections and also a decrease in colonization of the infected organs. From these results, we conclude that the genes PA1054 to PA1059 encode a Na+/H+ antiporter that is largely responsible for Na+ extrusion in P. aeruginosa and has a role in the infection of the pathogen. We propose to designate PA1054 to PA1059 as the sha (sodium hydrogen antiporter) genes, shaABCDEFG.     

猪源大肠杆菌(ETEC、STEC、AEEC)毒力基因及其与O抗原型的关系

[目的]揭示从我国部分地区仔猪腹泻或水肿病病猪体内分离到的300个大肠杆菌分离株所属病原型(pathotype)、毒力基因及其与O血清型的关系.[方法]O血清型采用常规的凝集试验进行测定,毒力基因采用PCR方法检测.[结果]通过对这300个分离株的O血清型及其毒素、紧密素和黏附素基因进行鉴定,结果显示除50株未定型、17株自凝外,测定出233个分离株的血清型,这些分离株覆盖了45个血清型,其中以0149、0107、0139、093和091为主,共133株,占定型菌株的57.1%;拥有est Ⅰ、estⅡ、elt、stx2e和eae A基因的菌株分别为102(34.0%)、190(63.3%)、81(27.0%)、57(19.0%)和54(18.0%)株;分离株中有51株K88基因阳性(其中菌毛表达率为100%),75株F18基因阳性(其中菌毛表达率为50.7%),在K88菌株中,0149血清型与est Ⅰ或estⅡ elt密切相关,在F18菌株中,0107血清型与est Ⅰ或estⅡ、0139血清型与stx2e紧密相关.依其毒力特征可将这些分离株分为以下6种类型:ETEC、STEC、AEEC、ETEC/STEC、AEEC/ETEC和AEEC/ETEC/STEC,分别拥有190、24、36、32、17和1个菌株,占分离株的63.3%、8.0%、12.0%、10.7%、5.7%和0.3%.通过分析这些分离株的O血清型、毒素类型和黏附素型之间的相关性:猪源ETEC以0149、0107、093和098等血清型为主,0149:K88菌株主要与estⅡ或estⅡ elt肠毒素相关,0107:F18菌株主要与estⅡ相关,093和098血清型菌株主要与estⅡ肠毒素相关;STEC菌株以0139:F18血清型为主,拥有stx2e;AEEC菌株拥有紧密素,无明显优势血清型;ETEC/STEC菌株以0107:F18和0116:F18血清型为主,主要与est Ⅰ stx2e或estⅡ stx2e密切相关,ETEC/AEEC菌株以091和0107血清型为主,全部拥有肠毒素est Ⅰ和紧密素基因.[结论]我国至少存在6种病原型的猪肠道致病性大肠杆菌,其中ETEC为我国部分地区猪大肠杆菌病的主要病原,同时其病原型日益复杂.     

Virulence profile of different phylogenetic groups of locally isolated community acquired uropathogenic E. coli from Faisalabad region of Pakistan

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Uropathogenic E.coli (UPEC) are among major pathogens causing urinary tract infections. Virulence factors are mainly responsible for the severity of these emerging infections. This study was planned to investigate the distribution of virulence genes and cytotoxic effects of UPEC isolates with reference to phylogenetic groups (B2, B1, D and A) to understand the presence and impact of virulence factors in the severity of infection in Faisalabad region of Pakistan. METHODS: In this study phylogenetic analysis, virulence gene identification and cytotoxicity of 59 uropathogenic E.coli isolates obtained from non-hospitalized patients was studied. RESULTS: Among 59 isolates, phylogenetic group B2 (50%) was most dominant followed by groups A, B1 (19% each) and D (12 %). Isolates present in group D showed highest presence of virulence genes. The prevalence hlyA (37%) was highest followed by sfaDE (27%), papC (24%), cnf1 (20%), eaeA (19%) and afaBC3 (14%). Highly hemolytic and highly verotoxic isolates mainly belonged to group D and B2. We also found two isolates with simultaneous presence of three fimbrial adhesin genes present on pap, afa, and sfa operons. This has not been reported before and underlines the dynamic nature of these UPEC isolates. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that in local UPEC isolates from non-hospitalized patients, group B2 was more prevalent. However, group D isolates were most versatile as all were equipped with virulence genes and showed highest level of cytotoxicity.     

Frameshift suppressor mutations affecting the major glycine transfer RNAs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mutations have been identified in Saccharomyces cerevisiae glycine tRNA genes that result in suppression of +1 frameshift mutations in glycine codons. Wild-type and suppressor alleles of genes encoding the two major glycine tRNAs, tRNA(GCC) and tRNA(UCC), were examined in this study. The genes were identified by genetic complementation and by hybridization to a yeast genomic library using purified tRNA probes. tRNA(UCC) is encoded by three genes, whereas approximately 15 genes encode tRNA(GCC). The frameshift suppressor genes suf1+, suf4+ and suf6+ were shown to encode the wild-type tRNA(UCC) tRNA. The suf1+ and suf4+ genes were identical in DNA sequence, whereas the suf6+ gene, whose DNA sequence was not determined, was shown by a hybridization experiment to encode tRNA(UCC). The ultraviolet light-induced SU F1-1 and spontaneous SU F4-1 suppressor mutations were each shown to differ from wild-type at two positions in the anticodon, including a +1 base-pair insertion and a base-pair substitution. These changes resulted in a CCCC four-base anticodon rather than the CCU three-base anticodon found in wild-type. The RNA sequence of tRNA(UCC) was shown to contain a modified uridine in the wobble position. Mutant tRNA(CCCC) isolated from a SU F1-1 strain lacked this modification. Three unlinked genes that encode wild-type tRNA(GCC), suf20+, trn2, and suf17+, were identical in DNA sequence to the previously described suf16+ frameshift suppressor gene. Spontaneous suppressor mutations at the SU F20 and SU F17 loci were analyzed. The SU F20-2 suppressor allele contained a CCCC anticodon. This allele was derived in two serial selections through two independent mutational events, a +1 base insertion and a base substitution in the anticodon. Presumably, the original suppressor allele, SU F20-1, contained the single base insertion. The SU F17-1 suppressor allele also contained a CCCC anticodon resulting from two mutations, a +1 insertion and a base substitution. However, this allele contained an additional base substitution at position 33 adjacent to the 5' side of the four-base anticodon. The possible origin and significance of multiple mutations leading to frameshift suppression is discussed.