Photosynthesis: 1900-1930.

During the second half of the 19th century Julius von Sachs established the main principles of the photosynthetic production of sugars. From then, a growing number of biochemists and physiologists attended to the process, that appeared like a "black box", in order to detect what came in and what went out of it. The English group of Frederick Blackman gave a remarkable contribution in individuating the close connection between temperature, light and CO2 concentration. Later, the great importance of light was stressed by Otto Warburg, who evaluated the radiant energy necessary to the process in terms of quantum theory. The biochemical mechanism of photosynthesis was interpreted by the main European schools on the basis of Adolf Baeyer's suggestion which posed formaldehyde as the core of the process. Formaldehyde's theory hold engaged the biochemists for about fifty years although some voices rose up against it. However, nobody could put forward more coherent theories until the 1940s, when Sam Ruben and Martin Kamen individuated the cyclic pattern of the process. Ultimately, the first thirty years of the 20th century must be seen as a preliminary stage studded with light and shade even if, in spite of controversial trends, several findings of remarkable interest became to disclose that "black box" as we know today chlorophyll photosynthesis.     

Breast-feeding and infant mortality in Norway 1860-1930

Using medical records from maternity clinics in the two Norwegian cities Oslo and Bergen, the effect of lactation on infant mortality during the period 1860-1930 is examined, comparing those who were and were not breast-fed in a total of about 6900 live born infants. The mortality of children not breast-fed was nearly three times that of those who were breast-fed. In a Cox regression analysis the infant's year of birth and the mother's marital status were found to influence mortality in addition to lactation. Children born to unmarried mothers experienced a mortality about twice that of those born to married mothers, both during on-going lactation and in the absence of lactation, up to about 1915. Children born in Oslo had a slightly higher mortality than those born in Bergen. The duration of lactation was found to have a continuing protective effect on infant survival after weaning--the longer the duration, the lower the mortality after cessation of lactation.     

Natural selection and reproductive behavior in Italy, 1930-1993

We studied the relaxation of natural selection affecting the newborn population in Italy between 1930 and 1993 due to the decrease in the stillbirth (mortality) rate and the simultaneous changes in women's reproductive behavior (strategies). Results show that, apart from a drastic overall reduction, the stillbirth rate has varied among different groups of neonates. The present stillbirth rate of less than 5 per thousand, observed in 8 of the 20 phenotypic classes defined on the basis of maternal age at delivery and neonate birth order, most likely represents an unavoidable biological or genetic cost. A 9 per thousand stillbirth rate, about twice the potential minimum, exists among neonates born to women delivering at advanced age (> or = 35): the risk they face at the first or, in adverse living conditions, the fourth pregnancy could, however, be decreased by a policy aimed at countering the tendency to delay maternity and improving antenatal care in economically disadvantaged areas of the country.     

In Memory of Academician Er-Mi Zhao (1930-2016)

Academician Er-Mi Zhao,Professor of the Chengdu Institute of Biology,Chinese Academy of Sciences,and Sichuan University,passed away on 24 December,2016,to the great loss of both Chinese and world herpetology.As one of the most internationally renowned Chinese herpetologists,Academician Zhao represented a remarkable era of Chinese herpetology and made a significant contribution to global research,both academically and spiritually.He played a significant role in our understanding of the amphibians and reptiles of Tibet,herpetofauna of the Hengduan Mountains,taxonomy of Chinese snakes,and biogeography of the East Asian islands.His distinguished studies laid a solid and substantial foundation for research by future generations of young herpetologists,and had an extensive and profound impact on the development of the field.